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Scientific Fundamentals 
for the 

Beauty Specialist 































































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Scientific Fundamentals 

for the 

Beauty Specialist 


BY 

Horace J. Smith, M. Cp. 

h 

Formerly Podiatrist, Foot Orthopedic Department, 
Hospital for Deformities and Joint Diseases, 
New York City 

Graduate of the First Institute of Podiatry 
New York City 


Illustrated by the Author 



PUBLISHED BY 

H. R. Howell Publishing Co , Inc. 

BROOKLYN-NEW YORK 














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Copyright 1923 
by Horace J. Smith 



DEC 24 *23 


©C1A766459 
HO J 






TO 

CHARLES MEEKER KOZLAY 

First National President of the N. H. A., and Editor of 
The American Hairdresser, as a token of personal 
regard this book is dedicated by 

THE AUTHOR 


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PREFACE 


In the preparation of this book the object kept in view 
has been to present in a concise form the fundamentals 
of the several sciences contained herein so that the hair¬ 
dresser and beauty specialist, for whom this book is 
particularly written, may obtain some elementary knowl¬ 
edge of the sciences applicable to her work, thereby estab¬ 
lishing a basis, or foundation which may encourage her 
to further augment this fundamental knowledge by the 
study of the more advanced text books on these subjects. 

It was at the instance of one who is continually striv¬ 
ing for the uplift of the profession of the hairdresser 
and beauty specialist that this work was attempted, 
namely, Mr. Charles Meeker Kozlay, Past President of 
the National Hairdressers’ Association, and Editor of 
The American Hairdresser, who was desirous that a 
book be prepared along technical lines written exclusively 
for the members of the profession. 

We trust that this little book will fulfill the object 
for which it was written. 

H. J. S. 

Brooklyn, N. Y. 

October, 1923. 








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TABLE OF CONTENTS 


CHAPTER PAGE 

Preface . v 

I. Fundamentals of Bacteriology.. 1 


Definition of Bacteriology—Morphological Classifica¬ 
tion of Bacteria—Bacilli, Cocci and Spirilla—Descrip¬ 
tion of a Bacterium—Capsule—Flagella—Reproduction 
(Akinesis)—Endotoxins and Exotoxins—Necessities for 
Bacterial Growth—Anaerobes and Aerobes—Parasites 
and Saprophytes—Spores—Destruction of Bacteria— 
Infection—Immunity—Streptococcus Pyogenes—Stap - 
hylococcus Pyogenes—Lockjaw (Tetanus)—Tuber¬ 
culosis (Consumption)—Pneumonia—Influenza (Da- 
Grippe)—Typhoid Fever—Typhoid Carriers—Ptomain 
Poisoning — Anthrax — Diphtheria — Diphtheria Car¬ 
riers—Photozoa. 

II. Hygiene and Sanitation in the Beauty Parlor. 15 

Equipment and Furnishings of a Modern Beauty 
Parlor—Hygiene and Sanitation—Definitions—Wash¬ 
ing of Hands—Sterilization of Implements and In¬ 
struments—Antiseptics—Use of Individual Towels— 
Individual Head Rest Coverings—Use of Styptics— 
Solutions as Styptics. 

III. Histology of the Skin . 21 

Definition of Histology—The Cell—Protoplasm—Cell 
Nucleus—Cell Wall—Centrosome—Cell Reproduction 
(Karyokinesis)—The Skin—The Derma—Reticular 
Layer—Papillary Layer—The Epidermis—Stratum 
Mucosum—Stratum Granulosum—Stratum Lucidum— 
Stratum Corneum. 

IV. Histology of the Hair . 26 

The Hair—Hair Shaft—Hair Root—Hair Bulb—Hair 
Papilla—Composition of Hair—Medulla, Cortex and 
Cuticle—The Hair Follicle—Inner Root Sheath—Outer 
Root Sheath—Connective Tissue Sheath—The Arrector 
Pili Muscle—Theories of Hair Growth. 

V. Histology of the Nails . 30 

The Nail—Nail Root—Nail Body—Free Edge—Nail 
Bed—Nail Wall—Nail Groove—Division in Zones— 
Matrix — Nail Formation — Eponychium — Hypony- 
chium—Lunula. 

VI. Histology of the Sudoriferous (Sweat) and Sebaceous 

(Oil) Glands .. 33 

Classification of Glands—The Sweat Gland—Loca¬ 
tion—Fundus—Duct—The Oil Gland—Location—Duet- 
Sebum. 

vii 









CHAPTER PAGE 

VII. Histology of Nerves . 37 


Nerves—Nerve Tissue—The Nerve Cell or Neurone— 
Axone — Dendrites — Neurofibrils — Perifibrillar Sub¬ 
stance—Chromophilic Bodies—The Axone Described— 

The Dendrites Described—Forms of Axones—Non- 
medullated and Medullated Axones—Axiscylinder— 
Axilemma—Neurolemma—Myelin Sheath—Nodes of 
Ranvier—Endoneurium—Perineurium—Epineurium. 

VIII. Histology of Muscles . 41 

Muscle—Classification of Muscle Tissue—Voluntary, 
Involuntary and Cardiac Muscle Tissue—Striations of 
Voluntary Muscle Tissue—Sarcolemma—Contractile 
Fibrillae — Muscle Discs — Sarcoplasm — Involuntary 
Muscle Tissue—Cardiac Muscle Tissue. 

IX. Structures of the Head and Face (With Special Reference 

to the Blood Vascular System). 44 

Bones of the Head and Face—Cranial Bones—Facial 
Bones—Muscles of the Head and Face—Cranial 
Region—Auricular Region—Palpebral Region—Orbital 
Region—Nasal Region—Maxillary Region—The Blood 
Circulation—Composition of the Blood—Blood Corpu¬ 
scles — Vascular System — Construction of Blood 
Vessels—Arteries, Veins and Capillaries—The Heart— 
Construction of the Heart—Pulmonary Circulation— 
Blood Supply of the Head and Face—Arterial— 
Arteries of the Head and Face—Venous—Veins of 
the Head and Face—Nerves of the Head and Face— 

The Twelve Cranial Nerves. 

X. A Brief Treatise on Materia Medica .65 

Definitions—The United States Pharmacopeia-Di¬ 

vision of Drugs—Kinds of Pharmaceutical Prepara¬ 
tions—Aqueous Liquids—Alcoholic Liquids—Miscel¬ 
laneous Liquids—Solids and Semi-Solids—Chemicals 
of Interest to the Beauty Specialist—Alcohol—Alum— 
Ammonia—Bicarbonate of Soda—Bichloride of Mer¬ 
cury—Boric Acid—Formalin and Formaldehyde—Tinc¬ 
ture of Iodine—Peroxide of Hydrogen—Phenol (Car¬ 
bolic Acid)—Zinc Oxide—Potassium Hydroxide. 

XI. First Aid in Emergencies . 71 

Emergencies Apt to Arise in the Beauty Parlor— 
Apoplexy—Artificial Respiration—Burns and Scalds— 
Electric Shock—Epileptic Fits—Fainting or Swoon¬ 
ing—Heat Exhaustion—Hemorrhage—Nose Bleed— 
Poisoning—Common Poisons and Treatment. 








CHAPTER PAGE 

XII. A Brief Treatise on Massage. 78 


Brief History—Theory of Massage—Effleurage—Fric¬ 
tion—Petrissage—Tapotement—Effect of Massage on 
the Sweat and Oil Glands, the Nerves, the Blood 
Vascular System, the Lymph Vascular System, the 
Muscular System, and on Respiration. 

XIII. Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry . 82 

Definition of Chemistry—States of Matter—Physical 
and Chemical Changes—Elements, Compounds and 
Mixtures—Analysis and Synthesis—Atoms and Mole¬ 
cules—Atomic Theory—Atomic and Molecular Weights 
—Valence—Radicals—Symbols and Formulas—Equa¬ 
tions—Law of the Conservation of Matter—List of 
Elements with their Symbols, Atomic Weights, 
and Valence—Oxygen, Its Preparation, Properties and 
Uses—Electrolysis—Catalytic Agent—Test for Oxygen 
—Definitions—Hydrogen, Its Preparation, Properties 
and Uses—Test for Hydrogen—Water—Composition of 
Water—Purification of Water—Boiling and Freezing 
Points of Water—Centigrade and Fahrenheit Ther¬ 
mometers—Properties and Uses of Water—Law of 
Definite Proportions—Solutions—Crystallization and 
Precipitation—Crystals—Water of Crystallization— 

Air—Composition of Air—Hydrogen Peroxide, Its Prep¬ 
aration, Properties and Uses—Law of Multiple Pro¬ 
portions—Nitrogen, Its Preparation and Properties— 
Carbon—Allotropic Forms of Carbon—Carbon Dioxide, 

Its Preparation, Properties and Uses—Test for Car¬ 
bon Dioxide—Carbon Monoxide, Its Preparation and 
Properties—Action of Carbon Monoxide on the Blood— 
Illuminating Gas—Acids, Bases and Salts—Properties 
and Composition of Acids—Mineral and Organic Acids 
—Properties and Composition of Bases—Common 
Bases—Properties and Composition of Salts—Common 
Salts—Neutralization—Action of Mineral Acids on the 
Skin—Action of Alkalies—Hydrochloric Acid, Its 
Preparation and Properties—Sulphuric Acid, Its Prep¬ 
aration, Properties and Uses—Nitric Acid, Its Prep¬ 
aration, Properties and Uses—Sodium Hydroxide. 

Its Preparation, Properties and Uses—Potassium 
Hydroxide—Sodium Chloride, Its Preparation and 
Uses—Summary of Reactions—Balancing. 


Glossary . 103 

Index .•.. 113 


ix 




















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ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig Page 

1 . Forms of Bacteria . 2 

2. Capsules, Flagella and Spores. 4 

3 . A Typical Cell . 21 

4 The Skin . 23 

5 . Section of Hair. 26 

6. Hair Follicle . 27 

7 . The Nail . 30 

8. Types of Glands . 33 

9 . Sweat and Oil Glands . 35 

10. Neurone . 37 

11. Medullated and Non-Medullated Axones. 39 

12. Types of Muscle Cells . 41 

13 . Diagram of Striated Muscle Fibre . 42 

14 . Facial and Cranial Bones . 45 

15 . Facial and Cranial Bones—continued. 46 

16 . Muscles of the Head and Face. 47 

17 . Muscles of the Head and Face—continued. 49 

18 . Pulmonary Circulation . 53 

19 . Arteries of the Head and Face. 54 

20 . Arteries of the Head and Face—continued. 55 

21 . Veins of the Head and Face. 59 

22 . Distribution of the Nerves of the Head and Face.. 61 


























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CHAPTER I. 

Fundamentals of Bacteriology 


ACTERIOLOGY is that science which treats 
with the study of micro-organisms called bac¬ 
teria. Bacteria (singular, bacterium), are un¬ 
icellular (single cell) micro-organisms of vege¬ 
tal origin. Their counterpart in the animal kingdom are 
known as protozoa (singular protozoan), which are 
likewise unicellular, and constitute the lowest form of 
animal life. 

Between bacteria and protozoa there is an intermed¬ 
iary type of micro-organisms known as spirochetae, 
which are bacteria having the properties of protozoa. 

Morphological Classification of Bacteria : (See Fig. 1.) 

There are three general forms of bacteria, namely: 

1 . Bacilli: (singular-bacillus, from Latin, meaning 
“little rod”.) This type occurs as rod-shaped micro¬ 
organisms, and of the three forms of bacteria are the 
most common. 

2. Cocci: (sing, coccus, from Greek = kernel.) 
These appear as round, or dot-like micro-organisms, and 
usually occur in pairs in which case they are then known 
as diplococci (double cocci). 

3 . Spirilla: (sing, spirillum, from Latin meaning 
“coil.”) These appear in the form of curved, or comma- 
shaped micro-organisms. 

A Bacterium Described : 

A bacterium is composed of a semi-fluid mass of liv¬ 
ing matter known as protoplasm (Greek -protos = first, 
plasma — form.) It sometimes has a limiting membrane, 
or capsule, but has no nucleus (a small spherical body 
found in the animal cell). 



1 





2 


Fundamentals of Bacteriology 


The innermost portion of the protoplasm is given the 
name endoplasm (Greek, endon, meaning “within”; and 
plasma, meaning “form”), and the outer portion is called 
ectoplasm (Greek, ecton, meaning “without”). When 
the outer extremity of the bacterial cell is thickened it is 
said to have a capsule. ( See Fig. 2.) 

Some bacteria show hair-like projections known as 



Forms of Bacteria—Fig. 1, B : Bacilli; C: Cocci; S : Spirilla 

flagella (Latin, flagellum, meaning “whip”), which serve 
as an organ of locomotion. ( See Fig. 2.) 

Reproduction : 

Bacterial reproduction is asexual, or nonsexual, the 
cell reproducing simply by a mechanical process known 


Fundamentals of Bacteriology 3 

as akinesis, or fission, the process being a complete, 
direct, division of the cell into two of similar form, each 
being complete in itself, and identical with the parent 
cell. The parent cell after it reaches a size which con¬ 
stitutes its maximum for the species shows a constric¬ 
tion in its cell substance, gradually increasing until it 
splits into two distinct cells, during this phenomenon 
there is an- equal division of the cell protoplasm. 

Akinesis is constantly occuring, and an idea of its 
vastness may be readily comprehended when one realizes 
that after the division of the parent cell, the offsprings 
in turn divide, and so on indefinitely. Complete division 
occurs in about fifteen minutes, so that a single bacter¬ 
ium is capable of producing millions of a like species in 
a single day. 

It is the ability of bacteria to rapidly multiply which 
makes them of great importance to mankind, for a few 
hundred bacteria, even of the pathogenic (i. e., disease 
producing), type would not be capable of producing 
harmful results. 

It must always be borne in mind that not all bacteria 
are harmful to the human race, in fact, the great ma¬ 
jority of them are helpful and useful to man, and only 
a comparatively few are really dangerous and detrimen¬ 
tal to bodily health. 

It is bacteria of the useful variety that give flavor to 
certain foods, such as cheese, butter, etc., other bacteria 
cause the process known as decay, or decomposition, and 
by the removal of dead organic matter, causing it to be¬ 
come a part of the earth, render to mankind a valuable 
service in feeding upon this waste, which otherwise would 
soon cover the earth’s surface to the exclusion of life. 

On the other hand, bacteria of the pathogenic (disease 
producing), type are the cause of man’s greatest scourge, 
namely, disease. This is brought about through the 
power of certain bacteria to throw off toxins (poisons), 
and when this occurs within the human body disease 
results, and often death. 

Bacterial toxins are of two varieties, namely, endo¬ 
toxins, which are produced within the body of the germ, 


4 


Fundamentals of Bacteriology 


and the germ must first be destroyed before the toxin 
is liberated (most pathogenic bacteria produce endo¬ 
toxins) ; and exotoxins, produced outside the body of 
the germ, the poisonous products being liberated by the 
bacteria during their life. Very few bacteria produce 
exotoxins although two important diseases due to the 
liberation of exotoxins are diptheria and tetanus 
(lockjaw). 

Necessities for Bacterial Growth : 

The environment most favorable for the growth of 



Capsules, Flagella and Spores—Fig. 2, A: Cocci, showing cap¬ 
sules ; B: Bacilli, showing flagella; C: Bacilli, showing spores 


bacteria is darkness, moisture and heat. The best tem¬ 
perature for bacterial growth is called the optimum 
temperature, usually 37.5°C., or 98.6°F., i. e., body tem¬ 
perature. They have their minimum (lowest) and maxi¬ 
mum (highest) temperatures varying with their power 
of resistance to heat and cold. 

Bacteria must be supplied with the elements carbon, 
oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen in order to live, al¬ 
though certain bacteria cannot exist in the presence of 
oxygen, while still others cannot live without it. 



Fundamentals of Bacteriology 5 

Anaerobes and Aerobes : 

Those bacteria that must have oxygen in order to 
exist are called obligatory aerobes, or strict aerobes. 

Those that cannot exist in oxygen are called obliga¬ 
tory anaerobes, or strict anaerobes. 

Those that prefer oxygen, but can live without it are 
called facultative anaerobes. 

Those that prefer to grow without oxygen but can live 
in it are called faculative aerobes. 

Parasites and Saprophytes : 

Two other classifications of bacteria are parasites and 
saprophytes. Parasites may be defined as those bacteria 
that live by preference on living matter, and these com¬ 
prise the bacteria of the pathogenic group. Saprophytes 
are bacteria that can only live on dead organic matter 
and are therefore of value from an economic standpoint 
through being the medium of producing fermentation 
and putrefaction (organic decomposition, or decay). 

Spores : (See Fig. 2.) 

Certain bacteria, known as spore-bearers, possess the 
power, when forced into unfavorable environment, to 
develop, within the cell plasm, bodies known as spores. 
These spores render this type of bacteria extremely re¬ 
sistant to germicides and heat, except when the latter is 
raised to an unusual high degree. 

By being more resistant to destruction by mechanical 
and chemical means, those of the pathogenic group are 
consequently more virulent in their action and of greater 
menace to man. 

Destruction of Bacteria : 

The destruction of bacteria may be accomplished by 
physical agents, such as sunlight and heat (this in¬ 
cludes sterilization), and chemical agents such as disin¬ 
fectants and germicides. 


6 


Fundamentals of Bacteriology 


The chief antiseptics with the minimum strength at 
which they have bactericidal properties are : 


Bichloride of mercury.1/50,000 

Formaldehyde .1/25,000 

Chlorine .1/4,000 

Alcohol (absolute) .1/333 

Iodine .1/1,000 

Peroxide of hydrogen .1/1,000 

Phenol (carbolic acid) .1/333 


These are, of course, only effective with certain bac¬ 
teria. 

Bichloride of mercury accomplishes the destruction of 
bacteria by the formation of a mercurial albuminate with 
the albumin, in so doing, however, it forms a crust which 
is favorable for the growth of anaerobic bacteria. 

Formaldehyde, a gas, in solution is known as formalin. 
This is a 40% solution of the gas. It is very irritating 
to the mucous membranes of the nose and throat, and to 
the eyes. It is a powerful disinfectant and germicide, 
and is used extensively in the cabinet sterilizer. 

Chlorine is a powerful gas and exceedingly irritating 
to the mucous membranes of the nose and throat, and if 
inhaled in large quantities will cause death. It is a 
powerful germicide and disinfectant. For bactericidal 
purposes chlorinated lime is often employed, which 
when in contact with moisture liberates free chlorine, and 
it is due to the setting free of this gas which gives it its 
germicidal tendencies. 

Alcohol is a powerful disinfectant and germicide. 
When employed to sterilize the skin, alcohol 60% is best 
for use as in this strength it has a greater penetrating 
power than that of full strength. 

Iodine: Tincture of iodine, 7% U. S. P., is a very 
effective germicide. 

Hydrogen peroxide depends upon the liberation of 
oxygen for its germicidal properties, which are somewhat 
limited. 

Phenol (carbolic acid) is a very excellent germicide 
and may be used in a 5% solution for the sterilization of 
metal instruments. 









Fundamentals of Bacteriology 7 

, Spore bearers are destroyed by superheated steam, and 
under pressure of 5 to 15 pounds (which is equivalent 
to 220°F., to 280°F.), even the most resistant, anthrax 
spores, are destroyed. 

Ordinary boiling water (212°F.) is germicidal in its 
action, and will completely destroy all bacteria other 
than spore bearers. 

Infection : 

Infection is a condition brought about through the 
entrance of pathogenic micro-organisms into the body, 
and the multiplication of these micro-organisms with sub¬ 
sequent development of disease. 

Virulent bacteria may cause death by the production 
and liberation of toxins, either endotoxins or exotoxins, 
and ptomains (poisonous substances produced by bacteria 
in dead vegetable and animal matter), or by the obstruc¬ 
tion of the blood circulation. 

The modes of entrance of bacteria into the human 
body are by the skin, intestinal tract, respiratory tract 
(inhalation), and by the mucous membranes (the lining 
of all internal passages of the body that directly com¬ 
municate with the external air, as the nose, throat, etc.) 

Several conditions must necessarily be fulfilled in order 
that an infection may occur, namely, the bodily resist¬ 
ance of the victim must be lowered, and the pathogenic 
bacteria must be more or less virulent, bacteria must 
gain entrance into the animal body in large numbers, 
and favorable environment for their existence must be 
present. 

Infections are either local or general. A local infec¬ 
tion is one in which only a certain portion of the body is 
involved, as in inflammation of a limited area, or in an 
abscess. It is when the pathogenic bacteria gain en¬ 
trance into the blood stream and circulate throughout 
the body that the infection is said to be general, and this 
condition is known as septicemia. Bacteria may reach 
the blood stream through the medium of a local infection 
if the latter is not checked immediately. 


8 


Fundamentals of Bacteriology 


Immunity : 

Immunity is a condition in which susceptibility to bac¬ 
terial disease is lacking, and the possession by the individ¬ 
ual of a resistance enabling him to recover from bac¬ 
terial toxins. 

Immunity is composed of two general classes, namely, 
natural, or hereditary, immunity, and acquired immunity. 

Natural, or hereditary, immunity is the power of re¬ 
sistance to infection acquired by the race, and this natural 
immunity to certain diseases exists at birth. 

Acquired immunity is the power of resistance pos¬ 
sessed by the individual, but which does not exist at birth. 
Acquired immunity is divided into two classifications, 
namely, active ( acquired ) immunity, and passive ( ac¬ 
quired ) immunity. 

Active acquired immunity is that form of immunity 
with which a person is endowed through having already 
had a specific disease from which there is rarely a second 
attack. Examples: measles, small pox, scarlet fever, 
and typhoid fever. Not all diseases, however, will insure 
the individual from a second attack. Some of the dis¬ 
eases which may recur are pneumonia, influenza, diph¬ 
theria, erysipelas, and tuberculosis. 

Under active acquired immunity comes immunity 
through inoculations with vaccines and bacterines. 

Passive acquired immunity is a momentary immunity 
in which the body cells take no part. An example of this 
type is the injection of the diphtheria anti-toxin (a sub¬ 
stance counteracting a poison). 

The differentiation between active acquired and pas¬ 
sive acquired immunity is simple. In active immunity 
the individual is inoculated with bacteria of a specific 
disease, in a limited amount, and from this inoculation 
suffers an attack of the disease in a mild form. Sub¬ 
stances antagonistic to the invading host are formed in 
the blood, which later renders him less susceptible to the 
disease in its severe form, or even entirely immune. 
This type of inoculation is used in combating typhoid 


Fundamentals of Bacteriology 9 

fever, and is employed as a prophylactic in the military 
forces of the United States. 

Now as these protective substances are formed by the 
individual himself, or in other words he takes an “active 
part” in conferring immunity upon himself, the immunity 
is called “active acquired immunity.” 

On the other hand, in passive immunity, the individual 
is not inoculated with the specific micro-organisms, but, 
as in the diphtheria anti-toxin, a horse is first inoculated 
with the diphtheria exotoxin in doses that are gradually 
increased, and the antagonistic substances are formed 
directly in the blood of the horse, then the blood serum, 
taken from the horse, which contains these antagonistic 
substances, is injected into the individual suffering from 
diphtheria, which increases his resistance to the bacterial 
invasion. 

As the patient did not actually develop these protective 
substances, in other words, did not take an active part 
in the process, the immunity conferred is said to be 
“passive acquired immunity.” 

Some of the more common diseases, and the specific 
micro-organisms causing them : 

Under the above heading will be mentioned some of 
the most common micro-organisms, and the general in¬ 
formation will be arranged in the following order; name 
of disease; name of micro-organism causing the disease; 
appearance (morphological) ; reference to spores, cap¬ 
sules and flagella; aerobic or anaerobic; type of toxin 
produced; mode of entrance; means of destruction; with 
additional notes. 

1. Streptococcus Pyogenes (pus producing ) : 

One of the most virulent types of bacteria is the strep¬ 
tococcus group. 

Streptococci appear in dot-like chains. The tem¬ 
perature most favorable for their growth, or optimum 
temperature, is 98.6°F., that is, body temperature. They 
have no spores, capsules or flagella. They are aerobes, 
but facultative anaerobes. They produce an endotoxin. 


10 Fundamentals of Bacteriology 

The mode of entrance is through the skin, and they may 
be destroyed by bichloride of mercury, 1/1000 in a few 
minutes, 5% phenol (carbolic acid), heating for one 
hour at 60° C., and in ten minutes by boiling. 

Streptococci are the cause of a large number of dis¬ 
eases, including such diseases as, erysipelas, septicemia 
(infection of the blood), endocarditis (inflammation of 
the membrane lining of the heart), arthritis (inflamma¬ 
tion of a joint), and also 90% of all carbuncles. In 
acute infections of streptococci little can be done, but in 
chronic infections vaccines are sometimes useful. 

2. Staphylococcus Pyogenes : 

The staphylococcus group is also pus producing, and 
is likewise virulent. 

This group is composed of: staphylococcus pyogenes 
albus (produces a white pus) ; staphylococcus pyogenes 
aureus (produces a yellow pus) ; and the staphylococcus 
pyogenes citreus (produces a lemon colored pus). 

The staphylococci appear in grape-like bunches. They 
have no spores, capsules, or flagella. They are aerobes 
but facultative anaerobes. They produce an endotoxin. 
The mode of infection, or entrance, is through the broken 
skin. They may be destroyed by boiling, in five minutes, 
heating at a temperature of 58°C., bichloride of mercury 
in the strength of 1/1000 in ten minutes, and almost at 
once by tincture of iodine. 

Staphylococci are very common and are found every¬ 
where, particularly on the human skin. They cause many 
diseases including septicemia, osteomyelitis (inflamma¬ 
tion of the bone marrow), may cause death by mechani¬ 
cal obstruction of the blood circulation, cause 80% of all 
abscesses and boils, and are found in nearly all super¬ 
ficial inflammations. In treatment anti-staphylococci 
vaccine and sera are often found efficacious. 

3. Lockjaw ( Tetanus ) : 

Name of the micro-organism causing tetanus is the 
bacillus tetanus, or tetani. It appears as a rod-shaped 
micro-organism. Is spore producing, but has no capsule, 


Fundamentals of Bacteriology 11 

and is motile in the spore form. It is an obligatory 
anaerobe. Produces an exotoxin of great virulence. 
The mode of entrance is through the feet. May be de¬ 
stroyed by phenol 5%, but due to its power of great re¬ 
sistance this means of destruction may take from twelve 
hours upward. Can resist destruction by live steam for 
five minutes, but the non-spore bearing bacillus is read¬ 
ily killed by heat and the ordinary disinfectants. 

The bacilli tetani are the most resistant of pathogenic 
bacteria, and their exotoxins are the most poisonous sub¬ 
stances known. Tetanus anti-toxin, if given in time, will 
prevent most cases of lockjaw from developing. 

4. Tuberculosis ( Consumption ) : 

Name of the micro-organism causing tuberculosis is 
the tubercle bacillus. It appears as a rod-shaped 
micro-organism, slightly beaded. Is not spore bearing, 
has no capsule or flagella. It grows best at 37.5°C., or 
98.6°F., that is, at body temperature. It is an aerobe, 
but a facultative anaerobe. Produces an endotoxin. 
Mode of infection is through the respiratory and intes¬ 
tinal tracts. May be destroyed by sunlight, and in a few 
minutes by phenol 5%. Is very resistant to cold. 

The tubercle bacilli although usually attacking the 
lungs, may attack any organ of the human body. The 
mode of combating the disease is by sunlight, rest, pleas¬ 
ant and hygienic surroundings, and nutritious food. 

5. Pneumonia : 

The name of the micro-organism causing the disease is 
the pneumococcus. It appears as a lance-shaped micro¬ 
organism, usually appearing in pairs (then known as 
diplococci). Has no spores or flagella, but is frequently 
encapsulated. Is an aerobe, but a facultative anaerobe. 
Produces an endotoxin. The mode of entrance is the 
respiratory tract. May be destroyed by heat at a tem¬ 
perature of 52°C., in ten minutes, and most disinfectants. 
The mode of combating the disease is by isolation, and the 
disinfecting of the mouth and nose of the patient. 


12 


Fundamentals of Bacteriology 


6. Influenza (La Grippe) : 

The micro-organism causing the disease is known as 
the influenza bacillus, or Pfeiffer’s bacillus. Appears 
as a rod-shaped micro-organism, very small. Has no 
spores, no flagella, and no capsule. Obligatory aerobe. 
Produces an endotoxin. Mode of infection is respira¬ 
tory tract. May be destroyed by ordinary disinfectants 
and heat. 

In combating influenza the patient should be isolated. 
Many cases of influenza do not show the presence of 
this micro-organism, leaving the question as to whether 
the so-called influenza bacillus really causes the disease. 

7. Typhoid Fever : 

The name of the micro-organism causing this disease 
is the bacillus typhosus. Appears as a slender, rod¬ 
shaped micro-organism. Has no capsule or spores, but 
is almost entirely covered with flagella, and is the most 
motile of all the bacteria. Its optimum temperature is 
37°C. Is an aerobe, but a facultative anaerobe. Pro¬ 
duces a very powerful endotoxin. Its mode of entrance 
is through the intestinal tract. May be destroyed by heat 
at a temperature of 56°C., this temperature will kill it in 
about ten minutes, bichloride of mercury will destroy it in 
a few minutes if used in the strength of 1/500, but it is 
somewhat resistant to ordinary disinfectants. 

Typhoid bacilli also cause death by undermining the 
mucous membranes of the small intestines, reaching the 
blood vessels and causing hemorrhage. Will also cause 
a fatal peritonitis (inflammation of the membrane lining 
the abdomen) by perforating the intestinal walls to the 
peritoneal cavity. Typhoid vaccine is the best prophy¬ 
lactic measure, but cannot be employed as a curative 
agent. 

Typhoid Carriers : Typhoid victims, after recovery, 
may carry the germs of typhoid in the intestinal tract 
for years and though immune themselves from a second 
attack, may be the cause of transmitting this disease to 
others. 


Fundamentals of Bacteriology 


13 


8. Ptomain Poisoning : 

The name of the micro-organism causing ptomain 
poisoning is the bacillus botulinus. It appears as a large, 
rod-shaped micro-organism. Has flagella, but no spores 
or capsule. It is a strict anaerobe. Produces an exo¬ 
toxin which is very powerful. Its mode of infection is 
through the digestive tract. Ptomain poisoning is very 
dangerous and through the germ producing a very power¬ 
ful toxin may often cause death within twenty-four 
hours. 

9. Anthrax : 

The micro-organism causing anthrax, or wool-sorter’s 
disease, is known as the bacillus anthraxis. It appears 
as a long, rod-shaped micro-organism, and is one of the 
largest of micro-organisms. When in a colony the ap¬ 
pearance, under the microscope, is that of a ball of 
thread. Produces spores, occasionally encapsulated, but 
has no flagella. It is an aerobe, but a facultative an¬ 
aerobe. Produces an endotoxin. Mode of infection is 
by the lungs (inhalation), skin, and gastrointestinal tract. 
Is destroyed by live steam in ten minutes, but is very 
resistant to ordinary disinfectants and heat. 

Anthrax is a very common disease in South Russia. 
The anthrax bacillus was the first micro-organism studied 
by bacteriologists. Treatment by attenuated culture 
serum. 

10. Diphtheria : 

The micro-organism causing this disease is known as 
the bacillus diphtheria. Appears as a slightly curved, 
rod-shaped micro-organism. Has no spores, capsule or 
flagella. Is an aerobe. Produces a powerful exotoxin. 
Mode of infection by the nose, mouth and throat. May 
be destroyed by heat at the temperature of 58°C., in ten 
minutes, and will be destroyed by the ordinary disinfect¬ 
ants. The spread of the disease is prevented by isolation, 
quarantine and general disinfecting. Prophylactic treat¬ 
ment consists of injection of the diphtheria anti-toxin. 

Diphtheria Carriers : As in typhoid fever there are 


14 


Fundamentals of Bacteriology 


persons who carry the germs of diphtheria and may 
spread the disease while they themselves do not show 
any sign of the disease. 

Protozoa : 

Protozoa (from Greek-/>roto=first; zoon= animal), 
are unicellular micro-organisms of the animal kingdom, 
representing the lowest form of animal life. There are 
about 5500 species of protozoa. 

They differ from bacteria in several characteristics, 
namely, in their mode of reproduction, which is usually 
sexual, although most protozoa have a double life, that 
is, a sexual cycle and an asexual cycle, they also differ 
from their counterpart in the vegetal kingdom by having 
nuceli, and by having a distinct undulating membrane 
enclosing the cell protoplasm. 

Some diseases having their origin with protozoa are, 
malaria, amebic dysentery, and hydrophobia. 

There are certain diseases of which the causes are un¬ 
known, as yet, and though micro-organisms are in many 
cases known to be the factor, they cannot be isolated, or 
are ultra-microscopic (cannot be seen under the micro¬ 
scope). 

Common diseases of which the causes are unknown, 
are: measles, scarlet fever, small pox, typhus, infantile 
paralysis, mumps, etc. 


CHAPTER II. 

Hygiene and Sanitation in the Beauty Parlor. 


N many cities and states throughout the coun¬ 
try, health regulations appertaining to the beauty 
parlors and beauty parlor work have been put 
in force by the local or state departments of 
health, or are being considered by these departments, and 
as these health regulations are more or less similar, those 
adopted by the New York City Department of Health 
will be used as an outline in this chapter. 

First let us consider the equipment and furnishings 
of a modern beauty parlor embodying such materials 
that cleanliness and sanitation may be easily obtained 
and maintained. 

The Floors : 

The floors of the working booths, in the order of their 
importance, should be of tile, cement, hardwood or cov¬ 
ered with linoleum. Any of these will permit of the 
maximum of cleanliness with the minimum of labor. 
This may also apply to floors of waiting rooms, although 
in the latter any good flooring will suffice. 

Partitions : 

Wherever partitions must be used to separate a room 
into both a waiting space and working booths, partitions 
of either white enameled metal, or enameled wood are 
the best. 

They should be about six or seven feet in height, but 
in no instance should they reach the ceiling. This will 
allow the free circulation of air, and maintain proper 
ventilation. Where doors are used it is desirable to have 
the door-knobs made of either glass or china, which may 
be readily washed. 



15 




16 Hygiene and Sanitation in the Beauty Parlor. 

The Working Booths : 

The working booths should be kept scrupulously clean. 
The equipment should be plain and white wherever pos¬ 
sible. Pictures, or diplomas, should not be hung in the 
working booths, as the walls should be severely plain 
with the possible exception of mirrors and wall attach¬ 
ments necessary in the work of the hairdresser and beauty 
specialist. The walls of these booths should be painted 
white, or enameled, as white will immediately show dirt 
spots. All hangings should be of washable white material, 
and frequently changed. 

The Waiting Room : 

In the waiting room decorations, the hairdresser may^ 
follow her own particular color scheme. No carpets or 
cloth rugs, however, should be used, as they are collec¬ 
tors of dust which even frequent sweepings will not 
entirely remove. Polished floors with small rugs, or even 
linoleum, are preferable. 

Pictures and diplomas should be hung in the waiting 
room, never in the working booths, and even these should 
be plainly framed, and limited in number. 

The furniture should present plain, smooth surfaces 
so that it may be easily cleaned and dusted. 

Hygiene and Sanitation : 

Definitions : 

What is hygiene? What is sanitation? ^ 

Hygiene is.the science which treats of the preservation 
and improvement of health; sanitation is the application 
of measures to promote public health. 

What is sterilization? 

Sterilisation is the destruction of living pathogenic 
(causing disease) micro-organisms by chemical and me¬ 
chanical means. 

What is asepsis ? What is antisepsis ? 

These terms are not synonymous. Asepsis is a condi- 
dition in which there is an absence of living pathogenic 
micro-organisms, and the prevention of the introduction 


Hygiene and Sanitation in the Beauty Parlor. 17 

of these organisms from without the body; antisepsis is 
a process of destruction of living germs by the use of 
certain agents, as drugs, which inhibit their growth or 
completely destroy them. 

What is an antiseptic ? What is a germicide ? 

An antiseptic is an agent which will prevent or inhibit 
the growth of bacteria; a germicide is an agent which 
will destroy germs. Antiseptic and germicide are now 
used synonymously. 

What is a disinfectant? 

A disinfectant is an agent having the power to destroy 
microbic life, and is therefore also termed a germicide. 

In all dealings with the general public strict asepsis 
should be observed. Your patrons place themselves in 
your care, and your responsibility for their physical wel¬ 
fare does not cease until you have completed the duties 
you are called upon to perform. You would not know¬ 
ingly be the agent in transmitting disease from one person 
to another, therefore it is your duty to take all of the 
precautions possible for the protection of your patrons 
against infection by observing the rules of asepsis, such 
as the sterilization of the hands, instruments and imple¬ 
ments used in your work. 

Washing of Hands (Regulation 8, Department of Health, 
New York City) 

All operators should observe personal hygiene. They 
should be garbed in clean, white uniforms, or coats. They 
should wash their hands thoroughly before and after at¬ 
tending each patron. 

In washing the hands, tincture of green soap and run¬ 
ning water may be employed. This method will insure 
sterilization of the hands. 

Where the operator has reasons to suspect the patron 
to be suffering from any skin disease, after washing the 
hands with tincture of green soap, rub the hands with 
alcohol, 60%, or ether, then dip the hands into a solution 
of bichloride of mercury, 1/2500. The use of the al- 



18 Hygiene and Sanitation in the Beauty Parlor. 

cohol, or ether, preceding the bichloride of mercury, will 
dissolve all fatty substances, either soapy or epidermal, 
that may be present on the hands, thereby permitting the 
free action of the bichloride of mercury. 

In any case where it is necessary to render sterile the 
skin of the patron, as in electrolysis of hair, this may be 
accomplished by using pledgets of cotton saturated with 
alcohol, 60%, and applying same to the skin for a few 
minutes. 

Alcohol, 60%, has a greater penetrating power than 
alcohol, 95%. Like iodine, alcohol will penetrate the lay¬ 
ers of the epidermis and destroy any bacteria located be¬ 
tween the outer layers. 

Sterilisation of Implements and Instruments (Regula¬ 
rs, Department of Health, New York City ) 

The desirable method for the sterilization of instru¬ 
ments is, of course, by the immersion in boiling water 
for a period of twenty (20) minutes. Electric sterilizers 
are preferable in the use of this method of sterilization. 
Where boiling water is employed to sterilize metal instru¬ 
ments, a small quantity of sodium carbonate (washing 
soda) should be added to the water. This will prevent 
rusting. 

Whenever boiling water cannot be conveniently used 
in the sterilization of instruments, antiseptic solutions 
may be resorted to and found efficacious. 

The following antiseptics may he used : 

1. Alcohol, 95%, for all metal instruments. 

2. Carbolic acid (liquor phenolis, U. S. P.), 5% 
solution; may be used for metal instruments. 

3. Lysol (an unofficial phenol derivative), 10%, best 
used for the sterilization of instruments with aluminum 
handles. 

Bichloride of mercury has a corrosive action on metal 
and for that reason would not be advisable for use. 


Hygiene and Sanitation in the Beauty Parlor. 19 

[Editor’s Note: The Board of Health of New York City 
nas announced the following sterilizing solution for metal instru¬ 
ments to be used in connection with, not instead of sterilizers: 
formaldehyde containing 40% of available formaldehyde gas 25 
parts. Cold water, 75 parts. This makes a 10% formaldehyde 
solution which will destroy pathogenic bacteria. In order to 
prevent rusting it is advisable to add Yz oz. of glycerine to 8 oz. 

f X ls solution. A11 instruments to remain therein for a period 
of 20 minutes.] 

The Use of Individual Towels (Regulation 14 , Depart¬ 
ment of Health, New York City) 

This is a very important regulation; the purpose of the 
use of individual towels may be readily understood. 

Upon the return of clean towels care should be taken 
to render them sterile. A large cabinet sterilizer, having 
aii -tight compartments, and the employment of the fumes 
of formaldehyde gas, will keep towels, etc., sterilized. 
Formaldehyde gas is an active germicide and a disin¬ 
fectant. 

Individual Head Rest Coverings (Regulation 15 , Depart¬ 
ment of Health, New York City) 

In treatments requiring the patron to assume a reclin¬ 
ing position in the chair, the head rest of the chair should 
be covered, and this covering changed for each individual 
patron. 

For sanitary reasons the changing of the head rest 
covering after each patron is very important, and should 
be strictly observed by the beauty specialist. 

Head rest coverings may be either a sterile towel or 
clean paper toweling. 

The Use of Styptics (Regulation 16 , Department of 
Health, New York City) 

In cases where the skin surface is accidentally broken 
by cutting, tearing or otherwise, and bleeding results, the 
use of a styptic is indicated. 

As. all styptics are not antiseptic, the use of a stick 
styptic may easily become the medium of transmitting 
infectious diseases by its promiscuous use. THE USE 


20 Hygiene and Sanitation in the Beauty Parlor. 

of the STYPTIC STICK OF ALUM IS DECIDEDLY 
UNCLEAN. 

In all instances where styptics are used to arrest bleed¬ 
ing, an antiseptic, such as iodine, is indicated previous 
to the application of the styptic. This will insure pre¬ 
vention against infection. 

The following may he used as styptics: 

1. Tincture of iodine (tinct. iodii, U. S. P.), anti¬ 
septic—applied to part may stop the bleeding. 

2. Peroxide of hydrogen (hydrogen dioxide), mild 
antiseptic—may effect a clot formation. 

3. Monsel’s solution (liquor ferri subsulphatis, U. 
S. P.). This is not antiseptic and should therefore be 
preceded by iodine. 

4. Adrenalin chloride, antiseptic—an excellent styptic. 

The use of any of these solutions will eliminate the un¬ 
cleanly styptic stick. An individual styptic is permitted 
by simply using a small piece of cotton twisted on the 
end of a wound applicator, or even a toothpick, saturating 
it with the solution desired, and applying it to the bleed¬ 
ing parts, until the hemorrhage is arrested. 

If all of the foregoing precautions are taken by the 
proprietress of the beauty parlor she may well feel that 
she is doing her part towards raising her profession to 
a higher plane, and have the satisfaction, as well, of 
knowing that her patrons have been given the protection 
against infection to which they are rightfully entitled 
according to all the laws of hygiene and sanitation. 


CHAPTER III. 
Histology of the Skin. 


H 


ISTOLOGY is the science that deals with the 
microscopic structure of tissues, therefore the 
histology of the skin simply means a study of 
the microscopic structure of the external, pro¬ 
tective covering of the human body. 

As the unit of both plant and animal life is the cell, 
and as reference is continually made to the cell through¬ 
out this subject we will first consider the structure of a 
typical cell. 



A Typical Cell. 

Cell Wall; b: Protoplasm of Cell; c: 


Nuclear Membrane 


Nucleus; d 
f: Nucleoli. 


Centro- 


cleoli. 

The Cell : 

All animals and plants are made up of cells. It is a 
group of cells of a like species that makes up a tissue, and 

21 









22 


Histology of the Skin. 


it is a group of tissues, doing a specific work, that makes 
up an organ, and when different organs combine to assist 
in a life process we have a system. 

A typical cell is a microscopic structure made up of 
protoplasm, having a limiting membrane known as the 
cell wall, and a nucleus. Additional structures are con¬ 
tained within the cell, as nucleoli within the nucleus, and 
the centrosome, the latter taking an active part in the 
phenomena of reproduction. ( See Fig. 3.) 

Cells are all reproduced from one cell which is the 
reason for the similarity of cells. 

Protoplasm, or cytoplasm, is a semi-fluid substance 
capable of digestion, and of changing food into its own 
substance. 

The nucleus of a cell is the centre of activity. It cor¬ 
responds to the shape of the cell itself, and takes an 
active part in the reproduction of the cell. 

The centrosome is a spherical body which may appear 
either within the nucleus or in the cell substance. In the 
reproductive process of the cell it takes an active part. 

Reproduction of an animal cell may occur by direct cell 
division, or akinesis, as in the case of a bacterial cell, 
already mentioned, but this form of reproduction is un¬ 
common in animals, the more common process of re¬ 
production being by an indirect division of the cell known 
as mitosis, or karyokinesis. 

Mitosis, or karyokinesis is a complex process, the 
nucleus of the cell first divides into two nuclei, bodies 
called chromosomes are formed during the process of 
mitosis, within the nucleus, and are constant in number, 
the centrosome also divides into two centrosomes which 
move to both extremities of the cell, the chromosomes 
split longitudinally, divide into an equal number, and go 
to each centrosome, constriction of the cell membrane 
occurs, gradually increasing until the cell is split in two, 
and the cell protoplasm, or cytoplasm, is equally divided 
between each portion. After complete division of the 
parent cell occurs two new cells are the result, each cell 


Histology of the Skin. 23 

corresponding to the parent cell in structure and char¬ 
acteristics. 

The Skin : 

The skin is the external covering of the human body. 
Its function is to act as a protective covering, an organ 
of the sense of touch, an organ of excretion and secre¬ 
tion, and a regulator of body temperature. 

The skin consists of two parts, namely, the derma, or 
cutis vera, which is the true skin; and the epidermis, or 
scarf skin. (See Fig. 4.) 

The Derma :—This part of the skin is also called the 
corium, and it consists of two layers which do not show 


J J 



Fig. 4. 

The Skin—Vertical Section Through Skin 

1: Epidermis; 2 : Derma; 3 : Subcutaneous Tissue; a : 
Stratum Corneum; b: Stratum Lucidum; c: Stratum 
Granulosum; d: Stratum Mucosum; e: Fat Cells; f: 
Nerve Endings; g: Connective Tissue Cells; h: Capillary 
Loop; i: Sweat Gland; j: Sweat Pores; k: Papillary 
Layer; 1: Reticular Layer. 

any distinct line of demarcation. The lower layer of the 
derma is given the name reticular layer, and that direct¬ 
ly above is called the papillary layer. Both of these 






24 


Histology of the Skin. 


layers are made up of connective tissue. Beneath the 
derma is the subcutaneous tissue. 

In the lowermost layer, reticular layer, are found the 
sudoriferous (sweat) and sebaceous (oil) glands, to¬ 
gether with hair-follicles (depressions containing hair 
roots), and some nerves. In the layer above, papillary 
layer, we find vascular and nerve supply, represented by 
the terminal nerve endings, and capillary loops. 

The Epidermis :—This portion of the skin is also called 
the scarf skin, and it consists of four layers, namely, 
from within outward, stratum mucosum, or rete mal- 
phigii; stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and the 
stratum corneum. 

Between the upper layer of the derma (papillary 
layer), and the lowermost layer of the epidermis (rete) 
there is a distinct line of demarcation, the separation 
being known as the membrana propria, or basement 
membrane. 

The epidermis is composed entirely of epithelial cells, 
a type of cells found covering all cutaneous and mucous 
surfaces. 

The lowermost layer of the epidermis, the stratum 
mucosum or rete, consists of many layers of cells which 
are all developed from the lowermost portion of the rete. 
These cells are almost columnar in shape, gradually 
changing to cuboidal as they become nearer the surface 
layers. The rete is made up of from five to twenty lay¬ 
ers depending upon the thickness of the skin. The cells 
have distinct nuclei. 

It is in the rete that the pigment cells are found which 
determine the complexion of the individual. The nearer 
the surface that the pigment cells appear the darker the 
complexion, and the further away from the surface the 
lighter the complexion. 

The stratum granulosum consists of one or two layers 
of cells that appear slightly flattened. These cells con¬ 
tain within the cell plasm bodies known as granules, and 
the appearance of these granules gives to this layer its 


Histology of the Skin. 25 

name. The nuclei of these cells show degenerative 
changes. 

The stratum lucidum consists of one or two layers of 
cells, the cytoplasm of which appears clear and trans¬ 
parent. These cells are more or less spindle shaped. The 
transparency of the cell protoplasm gives this layer its 
distinctive name. The nuclei of the cells are very faint, 
and in a large number are entirely absent. 

The stratum corneum is composed of flattened, scale¬ 
like cells, packed tightly together. The thickness of this 
layer depends upon the location and varies with the 
amount of pressure to which the skin is subjected. The 
number of layers of cells may run from a few layers to 
hundreds of layers, the larger number being, naturally, 
where the skin is thickest, as on the palmar surface of 
the hands, and the plantar surface of the feet. Nuclei 
are rarely seen in these cells. 

Where the skin is exceptionally thin the two middle 
layers of the epidermis, the stratum lucidum and stratum 
granulosum, may not be developed, but the stratum 
mucosum and the stratum corneum are always present. 


CHAPTER IV. 
Histology of the Hair. 


AIR is the hirsute appendage of the skin, and is 
a development of the epidermis. 

The hair consists of two portions, namely, the 
shaft , and the root. The shaft being that por¬ 
tion of the hair which extends beyond, or above, the skin 
surface, and the root being that portion of the hair 
buried below the surface of the skin. 



Fig. 5. 

Longitudinal Section of Hair Showing Its Three Layers 

a: Cuticle of Hair; b: Cortex; c: Medulla. 



At the lower extremity of the hair root is found an 
expanded, bulbous portion known as the hair bulb, hav¬ 
ing on its inferior (lower) surface a depression, or con¬ 
cavity, for the reception of an extension of the corium 

26 

















27 


Histology of the Hair. 

known as the hair papilla. The hair papilla carries both 
blood and nerve supply, and it is from the hair papilla 
that the hair receives its nutrition. 



Fig. 6. 

Hair Follicle 

a: Hair Shaft; b: Epidermis; c: Derma; d: Ar- 
rector Pili Muscle; e: Oil Gland; f: Hair Bulb; 
g: Hair Papilla; h: Connective Tissue Sheath; i: 

Outer Root Sheath; j: Inner Root Sheath. 

The hair is composed of three layers of epithelial cells. 
The three layers, from within outward, are called the 
medulla, the cortex, and the cuticle . (See Fig. 5.) 














28 


Histology of the Hair. 

The medulla, the centre of a hair, is made up of from 
two to four layers of epithelial cells which are cuboidaHn 
shape, and have undeveloped nuceli. In the smaller hairs 
this layer will not be found. 

The cortex, the second layer, is composed of many lay¬ 
ers of spindle shaped cells, having indistinct nuceli. 
These cells contain the pigment of the hair, giving to it 
its particular color. The cortex forms the greater bulk 
of the hair. 

The cuticle of the hair is the outermost layer and con¬ 
sists of scale-like cells r overlapping each other. These 
cells are without nuclei. 

The Hair Follicle : 

The hair follicle is a depression in the skin which con¬ 
tains the hair root. It is composed of both epithelial 
and connective tissue cells, that is, cells similar to those 
found in the epidermal and dermal layers of the skin. 

The hair follicle consists of an inner root sheath, an 
outer root sheath, and a connective tissue sheath. (See 
Fig. 6.) 

The inner root sheath in turn is divided into three 
layers known as the cuticle of the root sheath, Huxley s 
layer, and Henle’s layer. 

The cuticle of the inner root sheath is similar in struc¬ 
ture to the cuticle of the hair itself, and is found directly 
alongside the cuticle of the hair. The cells are identical 
with those of the hair cuticle. 

Huxley 1 s layer, the middle layer of the inner root 
sheath, is composed of one or two rows of long cells, 
which may or may not have nuclei. 

Henle’s layer, the outer layer of the inner root sheath, 
is simply a single layer of flattened cells, mostly lion- 
nucleated. 

The outer root sheath is a single sheath composed of 
the structures of the rete malphigii, or stratum mucosum, 
of the epidermis. 


Histology of the Hair. 


29 


The connective tissue sheath is made up of three lay¬ 
ers, from within outward, next the outer root sheath, a 
vitreous membrane, a vascular layer, and a fibrous layer. 

The vitreous membrane is thin and elastic and cor¬ 
responds to the membrana propria, or basement mem¬ 
brane, separating the derma and epidermis. 

The vascular layer is made up of connective tissue and 
carries the blood supply. 

The fibrous layer is made up of white fibrous tissue, 
and is very tough. 

The Arrector Pili Muscle : 

Connecting with the hair follicle at its lower extremity, 
or about the lower third of the follicle, is a small muscle 
known as the arrector pili muscle. This little muscle 
tends to straighten the hair when it contracts, and also 
to compress the sebaceous (oil) gland which empties into 
the hair follicle just above the arrector pili muscle. 

Theories of Hair Growth : 

There are two theories advanced to explain the growth 
of hair, one is that the growth takes place from the hair 
bulb, upward toward the skin surface, and the other 
theory is, that besides growth taking place from the hair 
bulb, the cells of the outer root sheath grow downward 
to the hair .bulb and return from the bulb to the skin 
surface. 


CHAPTER V. 
Histology of the Nails. 


NAIL is the horny, protective covering of the 
last, or terminal phalanx of a finger or toe. 
Nails are modified epidermis. 

The nail has an outer, hard portion, which is 
the true nail, and an under soft portion. The hard por¬ 
tion is developed from the stratum lucidum of the epider¬ 
mis and is made up of several layers of clear, flattened 
cells overlapping each other. These cells show the 



/ 

a 6 c. 



&9. 7 


The Nail 


No. 1: a: Nail Root; b: Nail Body; c: Free Edge; d: Hypony- 
chium; e: Matrix. No. 2: a: Eponychium; b: Lunula. No. 3: 
a: Nail; b: Nail Groove; c: Nail Wall; d: Epidermis; e: Nail 
Bed. 


presence of nuclei. The softer portion of the nail is 
composed of the same structures as the rete malphigii, 

30 










Histology of the Nails. 


31 


or stratum mucosum, immediately beneath which is 
found the membrana propria, or basement membrane, 
and the corium. 

A nail consists of a nail root, a nail body, and a free 
edge . (See Fig. 7.) 

The nail root is that portion situated at the posterior 
(rear) end of the nail, embedded under the skin. 

The nail body is all of the uncovered portion of the 
nail, attached laterally, and running from the posterior 
end to the finger tip. 

The free edge is the anterior (forward) unattached 
portion of the nail body extending beyond the finger tip. 

The nail rests upon a portion of the corium known as 
the nail bed, and that part of the nail bed which lies 
beneath the nail root, but slightly forward of the root, 
is called the matrix. (See Fig. 7.) 

On each side of the nail bed a fold of skin is found 
which is known as the nail wall. Between the nail wall 
and the nail bed appears a furrow known as the nail 
groove. (See Fig. 7.) 

The nail bed is divided into three zones, namely, the 
proximal zone, located in the vicinity of the nail matrix; 
the central zone, which constitutes the main portion of 
the nail bed; and the distal zone, represented by a thin 
line immediately preceding the free edge of the nail. 

The nail bed is composed of the same layers as the 
derma, above which appears the membrana propria, or 
basement membrane, and a layer of rete cells. 

As the hard, outer portion of the nail grows forward 
and outward, it glides over the rete, the latter remaining 
stationary. 

Formation of the nail occurs in the matrix by the 
changing of the cells of the matrix into true nail cells. 

The matrix is composed of from six to a dozen layers 
of cells corresponding to those of the strata lucidum and 
granulosum, and these cells are constantly reproducing 


32 


Histology of the Nails. 


and undergoing a hardening process. The matrix is 
vascular and extremely sensitive. 

At the posterior junction of the nail and skin, the 
stratum corneum, of the epidermis, extends slightly over 
the top of the nail, and this extension of the corneum is 
given the name, eponychium. At the distal end of the 
nail, and located beneath the free edge, is also found an 
extension of the corneous layer which is known as the 
hyponychium. (See Fig. 7.) 

A semilunar area located at the nail root, which may 
be readily seen with the naked eye, is called the lunula. 
It is white in appearance, and the least vascular portion 
of the nail matrix. (See Fig. 7.) 


CHAPTER VI. 

Histology of the Sudoriferous (Sweat) and 
Sebaceous (Oil) Glands 

LANDS are secretory organs. They are classi¬ 
fied as tubular glands (simple or compound), 
and saccular glands (simple or compound). 
The saccular glands are also known as alveolar 
glands, and the compound saccular, or alveolar glands, 
are sometimes referred to as racemose qlands. (See 
Fig. 8.) 




a. 







Types of Glands 

a and b: Simple Tubular Glands; c: Compound Tubular Gland; 
d and e: Simple Saccular or Alveolar Glands; f: Compound 
Saccular or Alveolar Gland; also called Racemose Gland. 


33 






34 Histology of the Sweat and Oil Glands. 

Two kinds of glands are found in the skin, namely, 
sudoriferous, or sweat glands, and sebaceous, or oil 
glands. These glands are developments of the epidermis, 
and are considered as appendages of the skin. 

Sudoriferous glands are simple tubular glands, which 
have a convoluted base. Sweat glands occur all over the 
body. (See Fig. 9.) 

Sweat glands are usually situated in the subcutaneous 
connective tissue, and are really a down-dipping of the 
epidermis, together with the underlying connective tissue 
structures. 

The coiled portion of the gland, located at its lower 
extremity, is known as the fundus, which in the smaller 
glands may simply consist of a single convoluted coil. 

The fundus of the gland is lined with a single layer of 
cuboidal epithelial cells, known as glandular epithelium. 
The cells have distinct nuclei. 

The membrana propria, or basement membrane, dips 
down and encloses all the convolutions of the gland. 
Outside the basement membrane is a connective tissue 
sheath. 

In the fundus of the larger sweat glands involuntary 
muscle cells separate the epithelial cells from the base¬ 
ment membrane. 

The gland duct is the tubelike structure that connects 
the gland proper with the skin surface. This duct is 
lined by two or three layers of cuboidal epithelial cells, 
outside of which is found the basement membrane, the 
latter being covered in turn by the connective tissue 
sheath. 

This duct upon leaving the fundus of the gland pur¬ 
sues a nearly straight course towards the skin surface 
while in the derma, but as it reaches the rete layer the 
duct takes on a more or less winding course. As the 
duct approaches the epidermic layers, the connective 
tissue covering, and the membrana propria leave the duct 
and follow their own particular course, so that above this 
point the duct is composed solely of epithelium. 


35 


Histology of the Sweat and Oil Glands. 

a 



a 



Sweat and Oil Glands 


No. 1: Sweat Gland; a: Sweat Pore; b: Epidermis; c: 
Derma; d: Duct; e: Fundus. No. 2: Oil Gland; a: Duct; b: 
Gland; c: Inner Root Sheath of Hair Follicle; d: Connective 
Tissue Sheath of Follicle; e: Outer Root Sheath of Follicle, 












36 Histology of the Sweat and Oil Glands. 

The duct of the sweat gland enters the epidermis be¬ 
tween two papillae of the skin, finally opening into a 
small depression in the skin surface known as the sweat 
pore. 

A sebaceous gland is practically a part of the hair fol¬ 
licle. Oil glands are simple alveolar, or saccular glands, 
which empty into the hair follicle at its upper third. 
Sebaceous glands are oval in shape. (See Fig. 9.) 

These glands are situated in the corium, and each 
gland is covered by the basement membrane, and a con¬ 
nective tissue sheath. 

The duct of the gland is lined with epithelial cells 
which are derived from the outer root sheath of the hair 
follicle. The basement membrane is derived from the 
vitreous membrane of the connective tissue sheath of the 
hair follicle, and the connective tissue sheath of the gland 
is derived from the derma, or from the follicle. 

Sebaceous glands secrete an oily substance called 
sebum, which consists of disintegrated gland cells which 
contain oil. 


CHAPTER VII. 
Histology of Nerves. 


ERVES are the medium by which organs are 
united with the body tissues, and with each 
other, conveying sensation from all parts of the 
body to the brain, thereby bringing the individ¬ 
ual in contact with things outside the body, and causing 
our consciousness to our surroundings. 

Nerve tissue is made up of cells which vary in size 
and shape. In shape nerve cells occur either as simple 
globular or spheroidal, pyramidal, or star-shaped masses, 
depending upon their location in the animal body. 




Fig . to 


Neurone 

a: Axone; b: Cell Cytoplasm, showing Chromophilic 
Bodies, Neurofibrils and Perifibrillar Substance; c: Nucleus 
of Cell; d: Dendrites. 

The unit of the nerve structure is known as the 
neurone, and the neurone may be defined as a nerve cell 
including all of its processes. The nervous system of the 
body is composed of a great collection of neurones. 

3 7 










38 


Histology of Nerves. 


Originally the neurone, or neuroblast, in its embryonic 
stage, does not show the presence of these processes, but 
within a short period a single branch, or process, ap¬ 
pears from the end of the nerve cell. This branch, or 
process, is called the axone. Later other processes make 
their appearance, which are likewise outgrowths of the 
cell protoplasm, and these latter are known as dendrites. 

The nerve cell, or neurone, like other body cells, con¬ 
sists of a mass of protoplasm, within which is found a 
nucleus, the latter being a distinct structure, and the 
former being highly developed. ( See Fig. 10.) 

The processes of the nerve cell, as mentioned above, 
consist of the axone, and dendrites, and according to 
the number of these processes produced by a nerve cell, 
the latter is known as unipolar, bipolar, or multipolar. 

The cell protoplasm, or cytoplasm consists of two, 
and sometimes three elements, namely, neurofibrils, 
which are delicate fibres found in the cell, and the cell 
processes; perifibrillar substance, a semi-fluid substance 
surrounding the neurofibrils; and a third element, which 
may or may not be present, known as chromophilic 
bodies, which are granules found in the cell protoplasm, 
particularly in that of the nerve cells of larger type. 
The chromophilic bodies, when present, extend into the 
dendrites, but not . into the axone. 

The Axone\ —This is a single structure arising from 
the cell body and extending, as a rule, to a distant part 
of the body. The axone, or nerve fibre, rarely sends off 
branches throughout its course, but at its terminal end¬ 
ing filaments are given off. 

The axone consists of neurofibrils, and perifibrillar 
substance, but, as already mentioned, does not contain 
chromophilic bodies. Some cells, although this is rare, 
have more than one axone, and nerve cells minus axones 
have been observed. 

The axone is the most important structure of a nerve 
cell. Its function is to carry nervous impulses from the 
cell body to another part, acting as a sending station, or 
transmitter. 

The Dendrites :—These consist of all the elements that 


Histology of Nerves. 


39 


go to make up the cell body, namely, neurofibrils, peri¬ 
fibrillar substance, and chromophilic bodies. Dendrites 
are much shorter than axones, and are heavier and 
bulkier in proportion. They do not extend very far 
from the cell body. 

Dendrites give off branches that intermingle with 
those of neighboring dendrites. The function of den¬ 
drites is to act as a receiving station for the nerve 
impulses. 

When the dendrites are destroyed the nerve cell dies. 



/*>// 


Medullated and Non-Medullated Axones 
Longitudinal Section 

No. 1: a: Axis-cylinder; b: Axilemma; c: Neurolemma. 
No. 2: a: Axis-cylinder; b: Axilemma; c: Neurolemma; d: 
Myelin Sheath; e: Node of Ranvier. 

Forms of Axones :—There are two forms of axones, 
namely, non-medullated and medullated. (See Fig. 11.) 

A non-medullated axone consists of a central portion 
known as the axis-cylinder, outside of which is found a 
delicate membranous covering called the axilemma, or 








40 


Histology of Nerves. 


axolemma, which is covered in turn by a special form 
of nervous connective tissue, forming a sheath, known 
as the neurolemma, or neurilemma. 

At the terminal endings of axones this outer covering, 
neurolemma, is absent, and some axones apparently are 
entirely without this structure. 

A medullated axone consists of all three structures as 
the non-medullated, i.e., axis-cylinder, axilemma, and 
neurolemma, but in addition to these has a structure 
known as the myelin sheath , or the white matter of 
Schwann, located between the axilemma and the neurol¬ 
emma. The myelin sheath is a semi-fluid, homogeneous 
substance. It is the presence of the myelin sheath that 
constitutes the medullated axone. 

Throughout the length of a medullated axone this 
myelin sheath may be absent in places, and at these 
points the axone is called non-medullated. 

Constrictions, at more or less regular intervals, ap¬ 
pear in the neurolemma of the medullated axone, with 
discontinuity of the myelin sheath. These constrictions 
are called the nodes of Ranvier. 

Nerve fibres, or axones, are gathered into bundles of 
varying sizes, each enclosed within the other, the gross 
bundles forming what are known as nerve trunks. 

Axones are gathered into primary bundles, which are 
covered by a delicate connective tissue framework, that 
extends between and around each nerve fibre, known as 
the endoneurium. The secondary bundles, made up of 
several primary bundles, are covered by a sheath known 
as the perineurium; and the secondary bundles are 
gathered into gross bundles, which are covered by a 
sheath called the epineurium, and in these larger bundles 
hundreds of nerve fibres, are held together. 

If a nerve is severed the impulse is lost towards the 
periphery, and regeneration occurs synchronously with 
degeneration. 


CHAPTER VIII. 

Histology of Muscles 

MUSCLE is an organ consisting of fibres hav¬ 
ing the property of contractility, which by con¬ 
traction produces the movements of an animal 
organism. 

There are three classifications of muscle tissue, 
namely, voluntary, or striated muscle tissue; involun¬ 
tary, or non-striated muscle tissue; and cardiac, or heart 
muscle tissue. {See Fig . 12.) 




Ca-rd/ac. /flu sc/e 
Co,// 



/nvoJun tar y, non^striate d 
Muscle. Ce/l. 

r/ 9 ./ 2 . 


Types of Muscle Cells 



i/o/un tary, striated 

muscle frbre 


Voluntary, or striated muscle tissue appears as elon¬ 
gated muscle fibres, each fibre is cylindrical in shape and 
being in reality a multi-nucleated cell. 

The voluntary muscle fibre is blunt at the ends, and 
slightly expanded towards its centre, the nuclei occuring 
immediately beneath the outer covering of the muscle 
fibre. 

Each voluntary muscle fibre consists of a delicate, 
clear, membranous sheath known as the sarcolemma, 
beneath which is found the sarcous substance, which is 
composed of the contractile fibrillae, and sarcoplasm, the 
latter a semi-fluid substance. {See Fig. 13.) 


41 





42 


Histology of Muscles 


A voluntary muscle fibre shows two sets of striations, 
namely, longitudinal striations, and cross striations. The 
longitudinal striations are due to the contractile fibrillae 
running parallel with each other. The appearance of the 
cross striations is due to these longitudinal running 
fibrillae having at regular intervals along their course, 
a thicker portion or segment which meets and joins 
similar segments from neighboring fibrillae, forming 
what are known as muscle discs, each segment or disc 
being in the same transverse plane. (See Fig. 13.) 



F/y . / J. 

Diagram of Striated Muscle Fibre 

a: Nuclei; occur just beneath sarcolemma; b: Contractile 
Fibrillae; c: Sarcolemma; d: Muscle Discs; e: Sarcoplasm. 


Between the longitudinal fibrillae, and around the 
muscle discs is found the semi-fluid sarcoplasm. 

Involuntary, or non-striated muscle tissue is made up 
of elongated, spindle-shaped cells, each cell tapering to 
a point at the extremities, and being somewhat thicker 









































Histology of Muscles 43 

near the centre. The nuclei are rod-shaped, and the cell 
cytoplasm is granular. v ’ 1 

.«d“e 

tS ar fhe’JJ ^ ar \ m “ SC 't * iSSUe ' S Str ' ated but involun - 

tary, the striations being less distinct than those of the 
voluntary muscle fibres. 

The cardiac muscle fibres are more distinctly cells 
which give off branches. These cells are cylindrical in 
shape and are short and thick, and it is by the joining 
together of these cells that the long fibres are produced! 

Cardiac muscle cells are without a distinct cell wall or 
membrane, and usually have a single nucleus. 

he?rt rd hm n ,’ USCle , Cel ,' S are , n0t ° nl >' Iocated around the 
ri 6 abo extend into the aorta (the chief artery of 

vessel 7 WhlCh nSCS fr ° m tHe heart) ’ and the P ulm °nary 


CHAPTER IX. 


Structures of the Head and Face 


With Special Reference to the Blood Vascular System 
this chapter will be considered the distribution 
FI J of the nerves and blood vessels, and the mus- 
cles and bones of the head and face in the 
following order; bones of the head and face; 


muscles of the head and face; blood supply of the head 
and face; and the nerve supply of the head and face. 


Bones of the Head and Face: 

The body framework is composed of bones which go 
to make up the skeleton. There are 206 bones in the 
human body, including the bones of the ear. The latter 
being six in number. . 

There are twenty-two bones in the head, consisting of 
eight cranial bones, and fourteen facial bones. 

The cranial hones consist of 1 frontal, 2 parietal, 1 
occipital, 2 temporal, 1 sphenoid and 1 ethmoid. 

The facial bones consist of 2 lachrymal, 2 nasal, 2 
malar, 2 superior maxillae, 2 palate, 2 turbinal, 1 vomer, 
and 1 inferior maxilla. 


Location : 

Cranial Bones. (See Figs. 14 and 15.) 

The occipital bone is located at the back and base of 
the cranium, forming its posterior-inferior portion. 

The parietal bones —two in number—form by their 
union the sides and roof of the cranium. 

The frontal bone is located at the anterior portion of 
the cranium, and forms the forehead. 

The temporal bones —two in number—are located at 
the side and base of the cranium. 

The sphenoid bone is wedged between the bones at 
the anterior part of the base of the skull. 


44 




Structures of the Head and Face 


45 


The ethmoid hone is located at the anterior portion of 
the base of the cranium, between the two orbits, at the 
root of the nose. 

Facial Bones : (See Figs. 14 and 15.) 

The lachrymal bones —two in number—form part of 
the inner wall of the orbit. 

The nasal bones —two in number—form the bridge of 
the nose. 

Fqc/qJ_ and Cran/o/_ 3ones. 



fror- //re JE^bmo/c/, l/omer, Fot/afe. 
QticI Turb/naJ /3ones See fry /S 


The malar bones — two in number—form the promin¬ 
ence of the cheeks, and part of the orbits. 

The superior maxillae —two in number—comprise the 
entire upper jaw, contain the upper teeth, and assist in 




















46 


Structures of the Head and Face 


forming three cavities, namely, the nose, mouth, and 
orbit. 

The palate bones —two in number—are located at the 
back part of the nasal cavity, and assist in the forma¬ 
tion of three cavities, namely, the nose, mouth and orbit. 

The turbinal bones— two in number—are situated on 
the outer wall of the nasal cavity. 

The vomer bone is located at the back of the nasal 
cavity, forming part of the septum (dividing wall) of 
the nose. 

The inferior maxilla is the largest bone in the face. 

Fact a/ and Crania/ Bones. 



It makes up the entire lower jaw, and holds the lower 
teeth. 


Muscles of the Head and Face: (See Fig. 16.) 

The following muscles of the head and face are classi¬ 
fied according to the region in which they are located: 

Cranial Region—(the Skull) : 

Occipitofrontalis —This muscle rises from the occipi¬ 
tal bone, and covers the whole of one side of the crown 





Structures of the Head and Face 47 

of the skull, from the back portion of the head to the 
eyebrow; its action is to move the scalp, and cause facial 
expression; its nerve supply is the posterior auricular, 
small occipital, and facial nerves. 

Auricular Region — (the Ear ) : 

Attollens Aurem—Arises from the aponeurosis (a 
fibrous expansion of a tendon) of the occipitofrontalis 

A!USc/es 0/ /he HeadQnd face. 


O/la top 
O/LATop SYA R>S 

Comp, a/api u/*\ m/a/oa 

OSP. ALA£ MAS! 
l£V.AMGr. opts 

{.TVP Top 


BOCC/A/PTop 

^p./6 


O/uf /fie. srussc/es of /fie 0 t 6//a/fi?*S' on See Fig./7. 

muscle; inserts into the pinna (the external cartilaginous 
flap of the ear); action, elevates the ear; nerve supply, 
temporal branch of the facial nerve. 

Attrahens Aurem —Has its origin in the occipitofron¬ 
talis muscle; inserts into the helix (the margin of the ex¬ 
ternal ear) ; action, draws the ear upwards; nerve supply, 
facial nerve. 




48 


Structures of the Head and Face 


Retrahens Aurem — Rises from the temporal bone; 
inserts into the concha (outer ear) ; action, draws ear 
backwards; nerve supply, posterior auricular nerve. 

Palpebral Region—(the Eyelid ) : 

Orbicularis Palpebrarum—Rises from the internal 
margin of the orbit; inserts into the skin of the cheeks, 
eyelids, forehead and temple; action, closes eyelids; 
nerve, facial. 

Corrugator Supercillii—Rises from the frontal bone; 
inserts into the orbicularis palpebrarum muscle; action, 
draws the eyebrow downward and inward; nerve, facial. 

Tensor Tarsi—Rises from the lachrymal bone; inserts 
into the tarsal cartilages (connective tissue framework 
of the eyelids) ; action, compresses the lachrymal sac 
(the dilated upper portion of the lachrymal duct) ; nerve, 
facial. 

Orbital Region — (the Eye Cavity ) — (See Fig. 17.) 

Levator Palpebrae Superioris—Rises from the sphe¬ 
noid bone; inserts into the the tarsal cartilages; action, 
elevates the upper eyelid; nerve, the third cranial nerve. 

Rectus Superior- — Rises from the optic foramen (the 
passage for the optic nerve and the opthalmic artery 
located in the orbit) ; inserts into the sclerotic coat of 
the eyeball; action, rotates the eyeball upward; nerve, 
third cranial. 

Rectus Inferior—Rises from the optic foramen; in¬ 
serts into the sclerotic coat of the eyeball; action, rotates 
eveball downward; nerve, third cranial. 

Rectus Internus—Rises from the optic foramen; in¬ 
serts into the sclerotic coat of the eyeball; action, rotates 
eyeball inward; nerve, third cranial. 

Rectus Externus — Rises from the optic foramen; in¬ 
serts into the sclerotic coat; action, rotates the eyeball 
outward; nerve, sixth cranial. 

Superior Oblique—Rises from the optic foramen; in¬ 
serts into the sclerotic coat; action, rotates the eyeball 
downward and inward; nerve, fourth cranial. 


Structures of the Head and Face 


49 


Inferior Oblique—Rises from the superior maxilla 
bone; inserts into the sclerotic coat; action, rotates the 
eyeball upward and outward; nerve, third cranial. 

Nasal Region—(the Nose ) 

Pyramidalis Nasi—Rises from the occipitofrontalis 
muscle; inserts into the skin over lower part of forehead 
between the eyebrows; action, lowers the eyebrow * nerve 
facial. ’ ' 

Levator Labii Superions Alaeque Nasi—Rises from 
the superior maxilla bone; inserts into the upper lip; 
action, dilates the nostril and elevates the lip ■ nerve 
facial. 

Mctsc/es o/ f/?e //eac/ arid /-ace. 





Dilator Naris Posterior—Rises from the superior max¬ 
illa bone; inserts into the skin at the margin of the nos¬ 
tril ; action, dilates the nostril; nerve, facial. 

Dilator Naris Anterior—Rises from the cartilage of 
the nose; inserts into the skin of the nose; action, dilates 
the nostril; nerve, facial. 

Compressor Nasi—Rises from the superior maxilla 
bone; inserts into the cartilage of the nose; action, com¬ 
presses the nostril; nerve, facial. 






50 


Structures of the Head and Face 


Compressor Narium Minor—Arises from the cartilage 
of the nose; inserts into the skin at the end of nose, 
action, compresses nostril; nerve, facial. 

Depressor Alae Nasi—Rises from the superior maxilla 
bone; inserts into the septum of the nose (dividing wall 
between the nostrils); action, contracts the nostril; 
nerve, facial. 

Maxillary Region — (the Jaw ) 

Levator Labii Superioris—Rises from the orbit; inserts 
into the upper lip; action, elevates the upper lip; nerve, 
facial. 

Levator Anguli Oris—Rises from the superior max¬ 
illa ; inserts into the angle of the mouth; action, elevates 
the angle of the mouth; nerve, facial. 

Zygomaticus Major—Rises from the malar bone; in¬ 
serts into the angle of the mouth; action, elevates the lip 
outward; nerve, facial. 

Zygomaticus Minor — Rises from the malar bone; in¬ 
serts at the angle of the mouth; action, elevates the lip 
outward and upward; nerve, facial. 

Levator Labii Inferioris — Rises from the inferior 
maxilla; inserts into the skin of the lower lip; action, 
elevates the lower lip; nerve, facial. 

Depressor Labii Inferioris — Rises from the lower jaw; 
inserts into the lower lip; action, depresses lip; nerve, 
facial. 

Depressor Anguli Oris—Rises from the inferior max¬ 
illa; inserts into the angle of the mouth; action, depresses 
the angle of the mouth; nerve, facial. 

Orbicularis Oris—Rises from the nasal septum and the 
inferior maxilla; inserts into the buccinator muscle; 
action, closes the lips; nerve, facial. 

Buccinator—Rises from the maxillary bones; inserts 
into the orbicularis oris muscle; action, compresses the 
cheeks and retracts the angle of the mouth; nerve, buccal 
branch of the facial nerve. 

Risorius—Rises from the masseter muscle; inserts at 
the angle of the mouth; action, draws back angles of the 
mouth; nerve, facial. This is the “smiling” muscle. 


Structures of the Head and Face 


51 


Masseter Rises from the superior maxilla; inserts at 
the angle of the lower jaw; action, muscle of mastica¬ 
tion (chewing) ; nerve, inferior maxillary. 

Temporal Rises from the temporal bone; inserts into 
the inferior maxilla; action, brings incisor teeth (the four 
anterior teeth in each jaw) together; nerve, inferior 
maxillary. 

Internal Pterygoid—Rises from the sphenoid bone; 
inserts into the angle of the lower jaw; action, raises 
lower jaw and draws it forward; nerve, inferior max¬ 
illary. 

External Pterygoid—Rises from the sphenoid bone; 
inserts into the lower jaw; action, draws jaw forward; 
nerve, inferior maxillary. . 


The Blood Circulation : 

Composition of Blood : 

Blood is the nutritive fluid of the body, and is essen¬ 
tial for the maintenance and activity of all physiologic 
functions. 

The blood brings to the tissues the elements of repair, 
and absorbs from the tissues waste materials which are 
to be eliminated from the body. 

Blood makes up about one-nineteenth of the body 
weight, and ranges in color from a bright red to a pur¬ 
plish hue, depending upon whether it is arterial or venous. 

The blood circulates through the body by means of 
tubelike vessels known as arteries and veins, and it is in 
constant movement due to forces exerted by the heart, 
the larger arteries and veins, respiration, and muscle 
movement. 

Blood, consists of a fluid portion and a solid portion. 
The fluid portion being the blood plasma, which is 
transparent and colorless; and the solid portion consist¬ 
ing of blood corpuscles. 

Blood corpuscles are of two kinds, namely, red cor¬ 
puscles or erythrocytes; and white corpuscles or leu¬ 
cocytes. 

The red corpuscles, or erythrocytes, are the most 



52 


Structures of the Head and Face 


numerous. They are biconcave, circular discs, elastic 
and non-nucleated (after the first year), and consist of 
a framework, the stroma, which contains in its meshes 
the hemoglobin, an albuminous substance containing iron, 
which is the coloring matter of the red corpuscles, and 
is the medium for carrying oxygen to the body tissues, 
at which stage it is known as oxyhemoglobin, and is 
bright red in color. When the oxygen is given up to the 
body tissues we then have reduced hemoglobin, which is 
purplish in color. The red cells are formed in the 
marrow of long bones. 

The white corpuscles, or leucocytes, are larger than 
the erythrocytes. They have nuclei, and are of great 
importance to the body in that they are the disease 
fighters. Leucocytes are formed in the adenoid tissues 
of the body, although some have their origin like the red 
corpuscles, in the marrow of long bones. 

Vascular System : 

The blood vascular system consists of the heart, acting 
as a force pump; and a series of tubelike vessels, known 
as arteries and capillaries, which run to all parts of the 
body, connecting in turn with other tubelike vessels known 
as veins, the latter returning the blood to the heart. 

The blood leaves the heart from its left side by a large 
artery known as the aorta, which gives off branches 
which become smaller and smaller finally forming capil¬ 
laries which connect the arteries with the veins, the lat¬ 
ter returning the blood to the right side of the heart by 
means of terminal veins known as the superior and in¬ 
ferior vena cava. 

Construction of Blood Vessels : 

Arteries and veins have three coats, an inner coat 
known as the tunica intima, made up of endothelial 
cells; the tunica media, the middle coat, made up of 
elastic and involuntary muscle tissue; and the tunica 
adventitia, the outer coat, which is composed of white 
fibrous tissue, acting as a support and a protection for 
the underlying structures. There is one difference be- 


Structures of the Head and Face 


53 


tween the arteries and veins in construction, the veins 
have in addition to the three coats mentioned, small 
valves occuring in pairs, and facing towards the heart. 
These valves assist in supporting the column of blood 
as it travels back toward the heart. 

The capillaries are made up only of a single layer of 
endothelial cells. 

The Heart : 

The heart is a cone shaped organ, hollow, and mus¬ 
cular. It is situated in the chest, between the lungs and 
behind the sternum (the flat bone of the chest). It is a 

Pu/rno]]ary_ C/rc u /af-io-n. 



little over five inches in length, about three and one-half 
inches across, and weighs about ten ounces. 

The heart is covered by a fibro-serous membrane 




54 


Structures of the Head and Face 


known as the pericardium, between the layers of which 
is a small amount of fluid substance, known as pericar¬ 
dial fluid, which acts as a lubricant thereby preventing 
friction of the parts during movements. 

Dense connective tissue lines the internal chambers of 
the heart, and this is known as endocardium. 

The muscular mass of the heart ( myocardium ) re¬ 
ceives its blood supply by means of two coronary arteries 
and two coronary veins, these comprise what is known 
as the coronary circulation. 

/r/er/es of Mead and face 


Superior 
1 orbital 



Arteria. Sefifi A/a si 
Sufier/or- Coronary. 

Inferior Coronary. 

/n far/or /• 


F / 9 . /s. 


The heart is divided into four chambers, two located 
in the upper portion of the heart, and two in the lower 
portion. The upper chambers are known as auricles, 
and the lower chambers are known as ventricles. 

Between the auricles and ventricles are openings which 







Structures of the Head and Face 


55 


allow the free passage of blood from one chamber to 
another. These openings are known as the auricular- 
ventricular openings. The blood flow between the auri¬ 
cles and ventricles is controlled by valves. 

Pulmonary Circulation : (See Fig. 18.) 

Upon returning from its course through the body, the 
blood enters the right auricle of the heart through the 


Arteries of Head and Face 



two terminal veins known as the superior vena cava and 
the inferior vena cava, which empty directly into the 
right auricle. At this stage the blood is venous. 

From the right auricle of the heart the blood passes 
through the auricular-ventricular opening into the right 
ventricle, and thence into the pulmonary artery (here 








56 Structures of the Head and Face 

the blood is venous, and this artery is the only one in 
the body that has venous blood). This artery carries 
the blood to the lungs where it is aerated, i. e., takes on 
oxygen, after which it returns to the heart by four pul¬ 
monary veins (here the blood is arterial) entering the 
left auricle of the heart. 

From the left auricle the blood passes through the 
auricular-ventricular opening into the left ventricle, 
where it is passed out into the aorta (the largest artery 
in the body) for distribution through the body ( systemic 
circulation ). 

Blood Supply of the Head and Face : 

Arterial : (See Figs. 19 and 20.) 

The chief arteries supplying the head and face are 
the right and left common carotid arteries. 

The left common carotid artery arises directly from 
the aorta, while the right common carotid artery arises 
from the innominate artery, a branch of the aorta. The 
common carotid artery on either side follows the same 
course. 

The common carotid arteries ascend the neck and at 
about the fourth cervical vertebra each divides into an 
internal and external branch. The internal branch sup¬ 
plies the cranial cavity, and the external branch supplies 
the superficial parts of the head and face, and a large 
portion of the neck. 

The external carotid artery in its course gives off eight 
(8) branches, namely, the superior thyroid, lingual, 
facial, occipital, posterior auricular, ascending pharyn¬ 
geal, superficial temporal, and the internal maxillary, all 
of which in turn give off branches. 

The superior thyroid artery is the first branch of the 
external carotid. It supplies the thyroid gland, and 
gives off the following branches, sternomastoid, in¬ 
frahyoid, superior laryngeal, and cricothyroid. 

The lingual artery is the second branch of the external 
carotid. It supplies the sublingual gland, mouth and 
tongue, and gives off the following branches, suprahyoid, 
dorsalis linguae, sublingual, and the ranine. 


Structures of the Head and Face 


57 


The facial artery is the third branch of the external 
carotid. It supplies the organs of the pharynx and the 
face, and gives off the following branches; in the neck; 
inferior or ascending palatine, tonsillar, submaxillary and 
submental; in the face; the muscular, inferior labial, in¬ 
ferior and superior coronary, lateralis nasi, and the 
angular. 

The occipital artery is the fourth branch of the ex¬ 
ternal carotid. It supplies the muscles of the neck, the 
occiput (back part of head) etc., and gives off the fol¬ 
lowing branches, muscular, sternomastoid, auricular, 
meningeal, arteria princeps cervicis, and cranial branches. 

The posterior auricular artery is the fifth branch of 
the external carotid. It supplies the scalp and the back 
of auricle (ear), and gives off the following branches, 
stylomastoid, auricular and mastoid. 

The ascending pharyngeal artery is the sixth branch 
of the external carotid. It supplies the neck, pharynx, 
and the dura mater (outer membrane of the brain), and 
gives off the following branches, prevertebral, pharyn¬ 
geal, meningeal, palatine, and tympanic. 

The superficial temporal artery is the seventh branch of 
the external carotid. It supplies the forehead, parotid 
gland, masseter muscle, and the ear, and gives off the 
following branches, transverse facial, middle temporal, 
orbital, anterior auricular, anterior and posterior tem¬ 
poral. 

The internal maxillary artery is the eighth branch of 
the external carotid. It supplies the structures indi¬ 
cated by the names of its branches. This artery is 
divided into three portions for descriptive purposes, 
namely, a maxillary group, pterygoid group, and a 
sphenomaxillary group. 

The branches of the internal maxillary artery in the 
maxillary group are; anterior tympanic, deep auricular, 
middle meningeal, small meningeal, and inferior dental. 

Those in the pterygoid group are; deep temporal, 
pterygoid, buccal, and masseteric. 

Those in the sphenomaxillary group are; alveolar or 
posterior dental, infraorbital, posterior or descending 


58 


Structures of the Head and Face 


palatine, vidian, pterygopalatine, and the nasal or 
sphenopalatine. 


The internal carotid artery , a branch of the common 
carotid artery, supplies the brain, eye, nose, and fore¬ 
head. For descriptive purposes it is divided into four 
portions, namely, the cervical, petrous, cavernous, and 
cerebral portions. 

The cervical portion has no branches. 

The petrous portion has two, namely, tympanic and 
vidian. 

The cavernous portion has the following branches, 
arteriae receptaculi, anterior meningeal, and the 
opthalmic. 

The cerebral portion has the following branches, an¬ 
terior cerebral, middle cerebral, posterior communicat¬ 
ing, and the anterior choroid or prechoroid. 

These in turn give off branches as follows: 

Tympanic —anastomoses with the tympanic branch of 
the internal maxillary and with the stylomastoid artery. 

Vidian —anastomoses with the vidian branch of the 
internal maxillary artery. 

Arteriae receptaculi —consists of several smaller 
branches, some of which anastomose with branches of 
the middle meningeal. 

Anterior meningeal —anastomoses with the dural 
branch of the posterior ethmoidal artery. 

The opthalmic divides into the frontal and nasal 
branches, the terminal branches of the artery. Its 
branches may be divided into the orbital group, and the 
ocular group. 

The orbital group consists of the following, lachrymal, 
supraorbital, posterior ethmoidal, anterior ethmoidal, in¬ 
ternal palpebral, frontal, and nasal. These are distributed 
to the orbit and surrounding parts. 

The ocular group consists of the short ciliary, long 
ciliary, anterior ciliary, arteria centralis retinae, and 
muscular. These supply the muscles and globe of the 
eye. 



Structures of the Head and Face 


59 


The anterior cerebral gives off the following branches, 
antero-median ganglionic, inferior internal frontal, anter¬ 
ior internal frontal, middle internal frcntal, and posterior 
internal frontal. 

The middle cerebral gives off the following branches, 
antero-lateral ganglionic, inferior external frontal, as¬ 
cending frontal, ascending parietal, parietotemporal, and 
the temporal. 

I/e/z?s o/ /lead and face 



The posterior communicating anastomoses with the 
posterior cerebral, a branch of the basilar. 

The anterior choroid artery ends in a plexus (net¬ 
work). 

Venous : (See Fig. 21.) 

The head, face and neck are drained by numerous 
veins which finally terminate in the superior vena cava, 
the latter emptying into the right auricle of the heart. 





60 Structures of the Head and Face 

The veins of the head and neck are divided into three 
groups, namely, veins of the exterior part of head and 
face; veins of the neck; and veins of the interior of the 
cranium. 

Veins of the Exterior of the Head and Face : 

Frontal, supraorbital, angular, facial, superficial tem¬ 
poral, internal maxillary, temporomaxillary, posterior 
auricular, and occipital. 

Veins of the Neck : (Return the blood from the head 

and face.) 

External jugular, posterior external jugular, anterior 
jugular, internal jugular, and vertebral. 

Cerebral Veins: 

Consist of the superficial veins on the brain surface, 
and deep veins in the interior of the cranium. 

The superficial veins are divided into two sets, super¬ 
ior and inferior. 

The superior cerebral veins are eight to twelve in num¬ 
ber on each side. 

The inferior cerebral veins consist of several import¬ 
ant veins, namely, the middle cerebral or superficial syl¬ 
vian vein, great anastomotic vein of Trolard, posterior 
anastomotic vein, basilar vein, anterior cerebral vein, 
deep sylvian vein, and the inferior striate veins. 

The deep cerebral veins are two in number, each is 
formed by the union of two veins, the vena corporis 
striati, and the choroid vein, on either side. 

There are also superficial cerebellar and deep cerebel¬ 
lar veins. 


The frontal vein and the supraorbital vein, at the inner 
angle of the orbit, join to form the angular vein, the lat¬ 
ter continuing downward and becoming the facial vein 
at the lower margin of the orbit. 

The superficial temporal vein and the internal maxil¬ 
lary vein unite in the parotid gland to form the temporo¬ 
maxillary vein, which divides into an anterior and pos¬ 
terior branch. 



Structures of the Head and Face 


61 


The anterior branch of the temporomaxillary vein and 
the facial vein, just below the angle of the lower jaw, 
unite to form the common facial vein which empties into 
the internal jugular vein, the latter joining with the 
subclavian vein, at the neck, to form the innominate vein. 
The right and left innominate veins unite to form the 
superior vena cava which conveys the blood from the up¬ 
per extremity to the right auricle of the heart. 



The occipital vein when superficial is a tributary of the 
external jugular vein, when deep it connects with the 
posterior vertebral vein. 

The external jugular vein is formed by the posterior 
branch of the temporomaxillary vein and the posterior 
auricular vein, at the external ear. The external jugular 
vein is smaller than the internal jugular. It terminates 
in the subclavian vein. 




62 


Structures of the Head and Face 


The posterior external jugular vein starts in the occi¬ 
pital region and runs down the back part of the neck 
and empties into the external jugular vein. 

The anterior jugular vein begins at the level of the 
chin and ends at the clavicle (collar bone) in the ex¬ 
ternal jugular vein. 

The vertebral vein commences at the back part of the 
head and joins with smaller vessels to form a single 
trunk which terminates at the root of the neck in the 
innominate vein. 

Nerves of the Head and Face : (See Fig. 22.) 

The cranial nerves consist of twelve pairs of nerves, 
and are known both by their name and number, as fol¬ 
lows : 

First—Olfactory. 

Second—Optic. 

Third—Motor Oculi. 

Fourth—Trochlear. 

Fifth—Trifacial. 

Sixth—Abducens. 

Seventh—Facial. 

Eighth—Auditory. 

Ninth—Glossopharyngeal. 

Tenth—Pneumogastric. 

Eleventh—Spinal Accessory. 

T welf th—Hypoglossal. 

Some of these nerves are special, sensory or mixed. 

Special—1-2-8-9. 

Motor—3-4-5 -6-7-10-11-12. 

Sensory—5-9-10. 

The olfactory nerve, or the first cranial nerve, is the 
special nerve of smell. Is distributed to the mucous 
membrane of the nose, septum of the nose, arid has 
twenty branches. 

The optic nerve, or second cranial nerve, is the spec¬ 
ial nerve of sight. It is distributed to the cells of the 
retina of the eye which are irritated and give the sen¬ 
sation of light. 


Structures of the Head and Face 


63 


The motor ocali, or third cranial nerve, is a pure motor 
nerve, and has to do with the movements of the eye, 
controlling various ocular muscles, and the iris of the 
eye. 

The trochlear, or fourth cranial nerve, is a motor 
nerve. It acts on the superior oblique muscle of the eye. 

The trifacial, or fifth cranial nerve, is the nerve of 
common sensation, taste and motion. It has three 
branches, the opthalmic, superior maxillary, and the in¬ 
ferior maxillary. 

The opthalmic branch is entirely sensory. It supplies 
the lachrymal gland, the skin on the forehead, the up¬ 
per part of the nose, cornea of the eye, mucous mem¬ 
brane of the eye (conjunctiva), eyelid, and eyebrow, and 
gives off branches. 

The superior maxillary branch is entirely sensory. It 
supplies sensation to the upper jaw, lower part of nose, 
mucous membranes of the gums, tonsils, and supplies the 
teeth. Gives off branches. 

The inferior maxillary branch, is both motor and sen¬ 
sory. It supplies the lower lip, teeth, skin, tongue, skin 
of ear and face. Gives off branches. 

The ahducens, or sixth cranial nerve, is a motor nerve. 
It controls the external rectus muscle of the eye. 

The facial, or seventh cranial nerve, is a motor nerve. 
It receives some nerve fibres from the fifth and tenth 
cranial nerves, giving some sensory action. It causes 
secretions of the mucous membranes of the nose, and 
supplies the soft and hard palates, the gums, and with 
the filaments of the fifth and tenth cranial nerves acts 
upon the superior maxillary gland causing secretion of 
saliva. This nerve sends a branch to the tongue con¬ 
trolling taste. Gives off eight branches. 

The auditory, or eighth cranial nerve, is a special nerve 
controlling hearing. It has two branches, the cochlear, 
giving sense of hearing, and the vestibular, which has to 
do with equilibrium. It supplies the internal ear. 


64 


Structures of the Head and Face 


The glossopharyngeal, or ninth cranial nerve, is a spec¬ 
ial nerve, and also has sensory filaments. It controls the 
sense of taste. Supplies the tongue, middle ear, pharynx, 
and the meninges. Plays a part in swallowing. Has six 
branches. 

The pneumo gastric, or vagus, the tenth cranial nerve, 
is both motor and sensory. It gives off several branches 
which supply the ear, pharynx, larynx, heart, lungs, 
esophagus (canal from pharynx to the stomach), and the 
bronchii. It is considered as the most important of the 
cranial nerves. 

The spinal accessory, or eleventh cranial nerve, is a 
motor nerve, controlling phonation. It controls the mus¬ 
cles that relax and contract the vocal cords. It sends 
branches to the lungs and the heart, but its main func¬ 
tion is to control phonation. 

The hypoglossal, or twelfth cranial nerve, is a motor 
nerve. It controls the movement of the tongue, lips, 
and muscle of the pharynx. Plays a part in articulation, 
mastication and phonation. It gives off four branches. 


CHAPTER X. 

A Brief Treatise on Materia Medica 

HE following treatise on the subject of materia 
medica is written in a concise form, and will 
mention only those chemicals with which the 
beauty specialist should be familiar. The treatise 
will include the name of the chemical, its chemical form¬ 
ula, origin or source, physical characteristics, its physio¬ 
logical action, use in the beauty parlor, with other addi¬ 
tional information. 

So that this chapter may be more fully comprehended 
we will first deal with some definitions: 

Definitions : 

Materia Medica (medicinal materials) : That branch 
of medical science treating of drugs. 

Pharmacognosy: The study of the physical properties 
of crude drugs. 

Pharmacy: The art of preparing and dispensing drugs 
for use. 

Pharmacology: The science of the nature and action 
of drugs. 

The U. S. Pharmacopeia : 

The initials, U S. P., following the name of any drug, 
signify that it is an official drug according to the stand¬ 
ardization of the United States Pharmacopeia. The U. 
S. Pharmacopeia is a book which defines and standard¬ 
izes certain drugs. It gives the definition, description and 
formulas for their preparation. The U. S. P., is revised 
every ten years by a committee from the professions of 
medicine and pharmacy, including medical and pharma¬ 
ceutical colleges, state and national societies, the Army, 
Navy and Marine Hospital Service. The use of this 
book is national and insures the obtaining of drugs in 



65 



66 


A Brief Treatise on Materia Medica 


uniform strength throughout the United States. . The 
materials of the U. S. P., are obtained from the animal, 
vegetable and mineral kingdoms. 

Division of Drugs : 

Drugs are divided into three large classes: (a) Pure 
chemicals, such as common table salt—sodium chloride- 
NaCl; (b) Mixed mineral products, as vaseline; (c) 
Certain animal and plant products, as lanolin (animal), 
and belladonna (plant). 

Kinds of Pharmaceutical Preparations 

1. Aqueous Liquids : 

(a) Water, or aqua: A weak aqueous solution of 
volatile substances (ex: peppermint water—chlorine 
water). There are 18 official waters. 

(b) Solution, or liquor: An aqueous solution of a 
non-volatile substance (ex: Burow’s solution—liquor 
aluminum acetatis). There are 25 official liquors. The 
one exception to the rule that these preparations are non¬ 
volatile is liquor ammonii acetatis. 

(c) Mixture, or mistura: An aqueous liquid con¬ 
taining suspended insoluble substances, (ex: rhubarb 
and soda.) Two mixtures are official. 

2. Alcoholic Liquids : 

(a) Fluid-extract: An alcoholic liquid preparation 
made by extraction in which the drug is represented 
volume for weight. They are mostly concentrated tinc¬ 
tures. 

(b) Tincture, or tinctura: An alcoholic solution of 
a non-volatile substance. It is made by extraction and 
of a strength less than that of the drug., (ex: tincture 
of iodine. There are 54 official tinctures in the U. S. P. 

3. Miscellaneous Liquids: 

(a) Liniment, or linimentum: Solution of various 
substances or mixtures in oily or alcoholic liquids con¬ 
taining fatty oils and intended for application to the skin. 
There are 8 official liniments. 


A Brief Treatise on Materia Medica 67 

(b) Lotion, or lotio: An aqueous liquid for appli¬ 
cation to the skin. 

4. Solids and Semi-solids : 

(a) Ointment, or unguentum: A soft, fatty medi¬ 
cated mixture which will melt at body temperature. 
There are 20 official ointments. 

(b) Powder, or pulvis: A dry, powdery mixture 
of drugs. 

Chemicals of Interest to the Beauty Specialist : 

1. Alcohol (ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol)—C 2 H 5 OH 
—The source of ethyl alcohol is the fermentation of cer¬ 
tain sugars by yeast, the alcohol being obtained from the 
fermented liquid by fractional distillation. Alcohol is a 
colorless liquid, having a characteristic odor. It is solu¬ 
ble in water and is used as a solvent in medicines and in 
making tinctures. 

It has a powerful antiseptic action, and is a disinfect¬ 
ant. In the beauty parlor it may be employed for the 
sterilization of metal instruments in a 95% solution, and 
for the sterilization of the skin of the patron and the 
hands of the operator in a 60% solution. 

2. Alum (alumen)—KA1 (S0 4 ) 2 —Alum is made 
from aluminum clay by treating it with sulphuric acid 
and then adding potassium sulphate, forming the double 
salt. It comes in the form of prismatic crystals, color¬ 
less, and having a strong astringent taste. It is supplied 
in the form of fine, white powder. It has an astringent 
action. In the beauty parlor it may be used as a styptic 
in cases of small cuts, however, when it is thus employed 
it is preferable to use crystals so that each crystal when 
used may be discarded. The use of the alum pencil is 
not advisable as it may spread infection from one person 
to another. 

3. Ammonia (ammoniae aqua fortior)—NH 4 OH— 
Stronger ammonia water, a colorless, transparent liquid 
with a pungent, penetrating odor. It is obtained from the 
ammonia liquor produced in the manufacture of coal gas. 


68 


A Brief Treatise on Materia Medica 


It is used to prepare the 10% ammonia water. It has a 
cleansing action due to its ability to dissolve grease. . It 
is used in the beauty parlor with hydrogen peroxide 
to bleach hair. 

4. Bicarbonate of Soda (sodii bicarbonas)—NaHC0 3 
—This is made by passing a stream of carbon-dioxide gas 
through a solution of sodium carbonate and collecting the 
precipitate. It is a white, opaque powder. In the beauty 
parlor its use is limited. It may be used to prevent the 
rusting of metal instruments in sterilization by boiling 
water. A small quantity is added to the water before 
the introduction of instruments. 

5. Bichloride of Mercury (mercuric chloride—hy- 
drogyri chloridum corrosivum)—HgCl 2 —Made by mix¬ 
ing sulphate of mercury with common salt and sublim¬ 
ing. It is put up in tablet form (7j4 grains), with 
ammonium chloride to render more rapid the solution 
of mercury. These tablets are usually colored blue and 
are also put up in peculiar shapes, coffin or diamond, so 
as to be readily identified by either color or shape. 
HgCl 2 has an antiseptic and disinfectant action. It 
should never be used for sterilizing metal instruments 
owing to its corrosive action, and should never be em¬ 
ployed over iodine, as the two will combine to form a 
new compound known as mercuric iodide which is very 
irritating to the skin. Bichloride of mercury may be 
used in the beauty parlor for the sterilization of hands 
in the strength of 1/2500. 

6. Boric Acid (boracic acid—acidum boricum) — 
H 3 B0 3 —Is obtained from sodium borate (which is 
mined), by decomposition with sulphuric acid, evapor¬ 
ated, and crystallized. It comes in the form of a white 
powder which is soluble in alcohol and water. It has a 
soothing action when applied in powder form, -or as a 
solution, and is a mild antiseptic. In the'beauty parlor 
it may be employed as a dusting powder and in solution 
as a cleansing lotion. 

7. Formalin and Formaldehyde: Formaldehyde, 


69 


A Brief Treatise on Materia Medica 

HCOH, is a gas prepared by the slow oxidation of methyl 
alcohol. It is a powerful disinfectant and preservative. 
At ordinary temperatures it is a gas, but it is put on the 
market as a water solution known as formalin (liquor 
formaldehydi). Formalin contains not less than 37% 
of the gas by weight. The gas is rendered inert by am¬ 
monia. Formaldehyde has a disagreeable, pungent odor 
and is very irritating to the mucous membranes of the 
nose and mouth, and irritating to the eyes. It will attack 
metals corroding them. It has a very powerful disinfect¬ 
ant action. It is used in the beauty parlor for the sterili¬ 
zation of towels, etc., through the medium of the cabinet 
sterilizer. 

8. Tincture of Iodine (iodum)—I. Iodin is obtained 
from seaweeds. The seaweeds are burned, the ashes are 
washed to obtain the iodides of potassium and sodium, 
which are treated to obtain iodine and bromine. Iodine 
appears in the form of a steel gray solid, slightly soluble 
J n water but readily soluble in alcohol. A solution of 
iodine in alcohol is called tincture of iodine. Iodine cry¬ 
stals are unstable in the air and are therefore kept in 
dark bottles. Tincture of iodine is 7% U. S. P., a solu¬ 
tion in alcohol together with 5% potassium iodide, the 
latter is added to render the iodine more soluble and to 
keep an almost stable solution of iodine. Iodine is a 
counter-irritant, and a disinfectant for wounds. It may 
be used in the beauty parlor as a disinfectant and anti¬ 
septic where the skin has accidently been broken. The 
stains of iodine may be removed with alcohol. 

9. Peroxide of Hydrogen (hydrogen dioxide)— 
H 2 0 2 —Can be prepared by the addition of barium per¬ 
oxide to cold dilute acids, as sulphuric or hydrochloric. 
It has the following characteristics, colorless, oily fluid, 
unstable, and capable of yielding 10 volumes of free 
oxygen. It is a strong oxidizing agent and in a dilution 
of not more than 1 or 2 volumes of water is an available 
germicide. It is used in the beauty parlor as a bleaching 
agent, acting as such due to the liberation of the extra¬ 
atom of oxygen. 


70 A Brief Treatise on Materia Medica 

10. Phenol (carbolic acid)—C 6 H 5 OH—Although 
this is called an acid it is not an acid. It is obtained 
by the fractional distillation of coal tar and may be made 
synthetically. It appears as a crystalline substance hav¬ 
ing a faint acid reaction. It is soluble in water, and in 20 
parts of water will give a 5% solution, glycerine being 
added to render the phenol more readily soluble in the 
water. The crystals, 96% pure phenol, will melt on 
warming and will remain a liquid upon the addition of 
10% of water. Phenol may be used in the beauty parlor, 
in solution, to sterilize metal instruments. 

11. Zinc Oxide (zinci oxidum)—ZnO—Made by 
treating native zinc carbonate with coal, in a special fur¬ 
nace, and collecting the zinc oxide formed in a chamber 
lined with muslin bags. Zinc oxide appears as a heavy, 
white powder. It is insoluble in water, and is mostly 
used in ointment form as a soothing and protective agent 
in abrasions. It may also be used as a dusting powder 
and in lotion form. Zinc oxide ointment is a 20% 
admixture of zinc oxide with benzoinated lard. It has an 
astringent and soothing action. May be employed in the 
beauty parlor as an astringent. 

12. Potassium Hydroxide (potassii hydroxidum) — 
KOH—Obtained from wood ashes and other sources. 
Comes in the form of white moulded sticks, which are 
kept in sealed bottles as the sticks will absorb moisture 
from the air. When a solution of potassium hydroxide 
is made a piece of the stick is weighed and dissolved in 
distilled water into the strength desired. KOH has a 
caustic and antiseptic action. It may be employed in 
manicuring in a 5% solution (liquor potasse), which 
is antiseptic, to soften nail cuticle. 


CHAPTER XI. 

First Aid in Emergencies 


N this chapter will be mentioned only those 
emergencies apt to arise in the beauty parlor 
such as apoplexy, burns and scalds, electric 
shock, epileptic fits, fainting or swooning, heat 
exhaustion, hemorrhage, nose bleed, and poisoning. 

In all emergencies the room, or working booth, should 
be cleared of all persons, confusion should be avoided, 
and when in doubt a physician should be immediately 
summoned. 

Apoplexy : 

This condition is defined as paralysis from the rupture 
of a cerebral vessel, and is characterized by heavy breath¬ 
ing, a flushed face, and dilated pupils. 

In a case of this kind it is advisable to send immedi¬ 
ately for medical assistance. 

First aid treatment consists of laying the victim in a 
comfortable position, and placing cold applications to the 
head. 

Never use a stimulant. 

Artificial Respiration : 

(Employed in severe electric shock, severe fainting, 
drowning, poisoning, gas suffocation, etc.) 

Schafer Method : 

Place the victim on her abdomen with her face turned 
to one side. Kneel beside, or astride, the victim with 
your knees at her hips, and facing towards her head. 

Place the palms of your hands on the small of back 
with the fingers extended and the base of the palms in 
line with the spine. 



71 




72 


First Aid in Emergencies 


First bear forward and bring the weight of your body 
on your hands, avoiding roughness. 

Then release pressure quickly, and repeat the move¬ 
ments. 

These movements should be regulated, occurring about 
fifteen times per minute, and should be continued until 
natural breathing is restored. 

In obstinate cases where the natural breathing of the 
victim has been suspended, artificial respiration should 
be continued for at least two hours before efforts at 
resuscitation are suspended. 

Sylvester Method : 

Place the victim on her back with the shoulders raised 
(use coats if nothing else is available) and with the head 
slightly lower than the rest of the body. 

Turn the head to one side with the tongue held out to 
prevent it from falling into the throat. It may be found 
necessary if the tongue falls back to tie it with a hand¬ 
kerchief. 

The knees of the victim may be bent to assist circula¬ 
tion. 

Take up position at the victim’s head, grasp fore-arms 
and raise over head and then back to the chest pressing 
them tightly against the lower ribs. Again raise the arms 
over head and repeat the movements until normal breath¬ 
ing is restored. 

After artificial respiration if the victim has recovered 
consciousness and is able to swallow, stimulants should 
be given such as whisky, hot coffee or tea in small doses. 

Burns and Scalds 

Burns may be caused by electricity, hot metals, flames, 
etc., while scalds are usually due to hot liquids, or live 
steam. Both are similar in effect. 

Burns are classified as follows: 

First Degree Burns; characterized merely by the ap¬ 
pearance of redness without the occurrence of blisters. 


First Aid in Emergencies 73 

Second Degree Burns; characterized by the formation 
of blisters. 

Third Degree Burns; involve the deeper structures 
with the possible charring of the tissues. 

First and second degree burns are probably the only 
types with which the hairdresser will have to deal. 

First aid treatment in burns of the first degree consists 
of the application of cloths saturated with a normal salt 
solution, or a solution of baking soda. Mild dusting 
powders, such as boric acid, may be dusted on the parts, 
or boric acid ointment—5%—may be applied. 

In burns of the second degree boric acid vaseline— 
10 % or ichthyol—10%—may be employed. 

In second and third degree burns a wet dressing of 
picric acid—1%—may be found efficacious. Both the 
picric acid and normal saline dressings are antiseptic and 
healing. 

If a burn is caused by a mineral acid flush the area 
with water, and wash with a solution of sodium 
carbonate. 

If a burn is caused by an alkali flush with water, and 
apply a dilute solution of vinegar in water (1 in 4)/ 

Electric Shock ( Severe ) : 

First aid treatment consists of loosening the clothing 
and moving the victim to a cool spot. Raise the head of 
the victim, and draw the tongue forward and give arti¬ 
ficial respiration. Massage over heart. 

Do not give alcoholic stimulants. 

Epileptic Fits : 

An epileptic fit is a nervous disorder with the loss of 
consciousness, and accompanied by convulsions. It is 
characterized by contortions of the face, foaming at the 
mouth, and rolling of the eyes. 

First aid treatment consists of placing the victim in a 
recumbent position. It is advisable to place a wad of 


74 First Aid in Emergencies 

cotton between the teeth to prevent the danger of biting 
of tongue . 

After recovery mild stimulants may be administered, 
but in moderation. 

If the victim passes into a deep sleep after the attack 
it is best not to disturb the sleep. 

Fainting or Swooning : 

In this condition there is a temporary suspension of 
respiration and circulation. Fainting is due to lack of 
blood to the head (brain), bad air, indigestion, nervous 
condition, bad odors, etc., and is characterized by pallor 
and loss of muscular control. 

First aid treatment consists of loosening all tight cloth¬ 
ing, corsets, etc., changing the air in the room, and plac¬ 
ing the victim in a reclining position with the head slightly 
lower than the rest of the body. 

If the victim is conscious give aromatic spirits of 
ammonia (one-half teaspoonful to a quarter of a glass 
of water). 

Stimulants such as hot tea, coffee, or milk may be 
given. 

If the victim is unconscious cold applications to the 
face, chest or over heart are indicated. 

If there is a sign of fainting before its actual occur¬ 
rence have the patron hold her head between the knees, 
and this may check the faintness owing to the blood be¬ 
ing brought quickly to the head. 

Heat Exhaustion: 

This is a condition brought about by a general func¬ 
tional depression due to heat, and it is characterized by a 
cool, moist skin and collapse. 

First aid treatment consists of loosening all clothing, 
and removing the victim to a cool, dark, quiet place. 

If the victim is conscious employ aromatic spirits of 
ammonia. 


75 


First Aid in Emergencies 

The victim should be kept on her back for a few hours, 
the rest and quiet assisting in recovery. 

Hemorrhage : 

This is a condition in which there is an escape of blood 
from the vessels in large or small quantities. 

Hemorrhage may occur because of an injury, or may 
be spontaneous. If the latter it is due to certain con¬ 
stitutional diseases. 

Hemorrhages due to an injury are either arterial, 
venous, or capillary. 

Arterial, from the arteries; the blood is bright red in 
color, and issues forth in spurts. 

Venous, from the veins; the blood is bluish in color, 
and issues forth in a steady flow. 

Capillary, from the capillaries; the blood is a mixture 
of arterial and venous, and oozes out steadily and tends 
to stop spontaneously. 

First aid treatment consists of arresting the flow of 
blood, and most hemorrhages can be controlled by digital 
pressure unless some large vessel has been severed. 

When the bleeding cannot be checked by digital pres¬ 
sure, compresses or tourniquets are indicated. 

A compress consists of folded cloths, or several lay¬ 
ers of gauze, for local pressure, having attached two 
long strips for tying. The folded gauze, or cloth, is 
placed over the cut and tied in place by means of the 
two strips. 

A tourniquet is an instrument used to compress arter¬ 
ies. An improvised tourniquet can be made for emer¬ 
gency from readily available materials, such as a handker¬ 
chief knotted in the middle and with the ends loose. 
The knot is placed over the wound and the ends tied. 
Any hard instrument, such as a knife, may be inserted 
within the loop, and twisted to bring greater pressure to 
bear on the part. 

Under no circumstances should a tourniquet be em- 


76 


First Aid in Emergencies 

ploved for more than one hour, as gangrene may result 
from the stopping of the circulation. In severe cases of 
hemorrhage medical assistance should be obtained. 

In severe bleeding from the scalp a tourniquet pass¬ 
ing around the forehead, above the ears, to the base oi 
the skull may stop the hemorrhage. 

In arterial bleeding the pressure should be applied 
above the cut, or between the cut and the heart. 

In venous bleeding the pressure should be applied 
below the cut. 

Nose Bleed : 

A hemorrhage from the nose. 

First aid treatment consists of loosening the collar if 
one is worn, and applying cold water pads, or ice to the 
back of the neck. 

One teaspoonful of either salt or vinegar to a cup of 
cold water may be snuffed up the nostrils. 

Poisoning : 

Where a person has accidently taken a poison send 
for a physician at once. If the name of the poison is 
known tell the physician. 

First aid treatment consists of administering emetics 
(substances that cause vomiting) such as, mustard (1 
teaspoonful) in water; salt and water; and plain warm 
water. 

Soothing liquids, after vomiting, may be given, such 
as milk, raw eggs, or olive oil. 

Some of the common poisons , and first aid treatment 
are : 

Poison : Mineral acids. 

Treatment : Dilute solutions of alkalies. Magnesium 
hydroxide (milk of magnesia) may be employed. Fol¬ 
low with olive oil, barley water, or milk. Never use a 
carbonate such as bicarbonate of soda or chalk mixture 


First Aid in Emergencies 77 

as they will liberate carbon dioxide when in contact with 
an acid. 

Poison : Alkalies. 

Treatment : Vinegar (acetic acid), or lemon juice 
(citric acid). 

Poison : Phenol (carbolic acid). 

Treatment : Emetics, and magnesium or sodium sul¬ 
phate. 

Poison : Silver nitrate. 

Treatment : Sodium chloride (table salt), and 

emetics. 

Poison : Iodine. 

Treatment : Starch and water, emetics. 

Poison : Alcohol poisoning. 

Treatment : Emetics and purgatives (agents producing 
watery evacuations). 

Poison : Wood alcohol. 

Treatment : Emetics and purgatives. 

Poison : Bichloride of mercury. 

Treatment : Emetics, raw eggs, and milk. 


CHAPTER XII. 

A Brief Treatise on Massage 


the various therapeutic measures employed in 
the treatment of pathological conditions of the 
JBVTRJ| human body, massage is one of the oldest. This 
HnBBSf art is as old as mankind, having been practised 
from ancient times among both civilized and savage 
races, by primitive man and by the lower animals, as 
well. Records of this art tend to prove that long before 
the birth of Christ, massage was practised in some form 
of anointing, rubbing, kneading, etc. , 

Massage was employed in some primitive manner 
among the old Greeks and Romans. Gladiators made 
use of body rubbing to relieve stiffness, pains of bruises, 
and to invigorate them. It was used in India and China 
from the earliest historic times, and to France is due, to 
a great extent, the credit of its modern revival. 

In reading ancient literature one continually finds 
passages alluding to massage further testifying to its 
use in centuries past. Homer, near the year of 1000 
B. C., makes mention in the Odyssey of women anointing 
and rubbing fatigued warriors, of those ancient wars, to 
refresh and invigorate them after their battles. Cicero, 
the Roman orator and statesman, had his body anointed 
regularly to assist in maintaining his bodily health, and 
Julius Caesar daily had his body pinched to help rid 
himself of a malady from which he suffered, and as both 
these historic characters lived some 2,000 years ago, we 
have this additional proof of the age of massage. We 
find that nearly 2,000 years ago a school was founded in 
Rome, by a Greek physician, for the purpose of teaching 
scientific ‘‘rubbing/’ and as century succeeds century the 
practice of massage improves, the older methods giving 

78 




79 


A Brief Treatise on Massage 

way to the more scientific. In the nineteenth century 
was introduced what is known as the “Swedish Move¬ 
ment and a school was instituted in Stockholm to teach 
this method. The credit for the invention of this method 
of massage is given to a man by the name of Peter 
Hendrik Ling, although some authorities claim that the 
Swedish movement is purely and simply an improve¬ 
ment on the method employed for many centuries among 
the Chinese. 

Theory of Massage 

Massage is the scientific application of certain move¬ 
ments upon the human body employed for its soothing, 
stimulative, and sedative effect. There are four prin¬ 
cipal movements, known as effleurage, or stroking move¬ 
ment; friction, which consists of deep rubbing; petris¬ 
sage, or kneading movement; and tapotement, or slap¬ 
ping movement. This latter includes vibration . 

The stroking movement, or effleurage, is performed 
with the whole hand, or with the surfaces of the fingers 
and thumb. There is little friction used in this move¬ 
ment, the hand or fingers being rested lightly upon the 
skin, and drawn or pushed along the surface. 

In deep rubbing, or friction, pressure is employed and 
the hands or fingers move the skin itself over the under¬ 
lying structures. 

Kneading, or petrissage, is a movement in which the 
tissues and muscles are picked up between the fingers 
and rolled. 

Slapping, or tapotement, is a movement performed by 
using the edge of the hands, or the tips of the fingers. 
Vibration, a form of tapotement, is a trembling move¬ 
ment performed by the fingers or hands. The modern 
electrical vibrator assists materially in this movement of 
massage, and is therefore extensively employed. 

Massage is primarily made use of for its stimulative 
effect on the person under treatment. Its scientific ap¬ 
plication improves the functions of the skin, stimulates 


80 A Brief Treatise on Massage 

the nerves or soothes them, increases the flow of .blood 
to the parts with the consequent increase in 'the. elimina¬ 
tion, from the body, of waste materials. It increases 
the nutrition to the parts under manipulation and by the 
stimulation of the cutaneous nerves the activity of the 
sudoriferous (sweat) and sebaceous (oil) glands is im¬ 
proved while effete matter is forced out through the 
ducts which connect these glands with the body surface. 

The effect of massage on the nerves depends upon the 
method employed and may be either stimulative, causing 
increased activity of the muscles, vessels and glands, or 
sedative, allaying nervous irritability. It will promote 
the nutrition of the nerves by the beneficial effect upon 
the blood circulation. 

The action of massage on the blood vascular system 
is shown by the acceleration of the blood flow, the amount 
of blood coming to the part under manipulation is con¬ 
siderably increased by the stimulation of.the vaso-motor 
nerves and with this increase there is in proportion a 
consequent increase in nutrition to the parts, as well 
as a greater elimination of waste products. 

The action of massage on the lymph vascular system 
is similar to that of the blood circulation, the flow of 
lymph is hastened and through this increase in the flow 
of lymph, waste substances are more readily removed 
and nutrition of the tissues likewise increased. 

On the muscular system the action of massage is highly 
beneficial for through the raising of the percentage of 
nutrition, brought about as already described, the de¬ 
velopment of the muscles is promoted. 

The effect on respiration is also beneficial, in that, by 
the acceleration of the blood stream a greater supply of 
oxygen is brought to the tissues, and a larger quantity 
of carbon-dioxide gas taken up by the blood for elimina¬ 
tion by the medium of the lungs, the result being in¬ 
creased respiratory activity. 

In conclusion, we might say, that the movements of 
massage described above, i. e., effleurage, friction, pet- 


A Brief Treatise on Massage 


81 


rissage, tapotement and vibration, may be used in a 
more or less modified form in giving a facial massage. 
To give a soothing and restful effect the movements 
should be slow and gentle, and to stimulate the move¬ 
ments should be somewhat vigorous with a slight degree 
of pressure. Massage, when the operator is experienced 
in this art, is capable of producing excellent and desir¬ 
able results, and even when attempted by an unskilled 
operator will seldom cause harm. It is necessary to 
keep in mind certain conditions in which the use of 
massage is contra-indicated. It should never be used 
where the skin is broken, over abscesses or tumors, 
over local inflammation, or during fever. 


CHAPTER XIII. 

Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 

HEMISTRY is that branch of science which 
deals with the composition of substances, and 
the changes which these substances undergo. 
The different kinds of matter are called 

substances. 

Substance is matter which is the same throughout, 
and matter may be defined as anything that occupies 
space and has weight. 

States of Matter : 

Matter may exist in any one of three forms, namely, 
solid, liquid, or gaseous. 

When a substance has a definite shape and a definite 
volume it is said to be in the solid state. 

When a substance has no definite shape, but has a 
definite volume it is said to be in the liquid state. 

When a substance has neither definite shape, nor 
definite volume it is said to be in the gaseous state. 

Matter is constantly undergoing changes under the 
influence of energy, such as, heat, light, electricity and 
motion. Changes in matter may be either physical or 
chemical. 

Physical and Chemical Changes: 

A physical change is one in which the identity of the 
substance, after the change, is not lost. 

For example, if we break a glass tumbler, the frag¬ 
ments are still recognized as glass, the change simply 
being a physical one. A piece of wood may be bent 
under weight, but upon the removal of this weight the 
wood will resume its original shape. Therefore though 
the substances may be altered in some respects, the 
characteristics by which we identify them are not lost. 



82 




Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 33 

Physical changes usually result in a change of such 
properties as color, size, or shape. 

A chemical change is one in which the identity of the 
substance is permanently lost, and a new substance is 
produced. 

For example, in the burning of a substance, such as 
wood, ashes result, not resembling in the least the orig¬ 
inal piece of wood, and when iron rusts a red powder 
results, the red powder having no resemblance to the 
original iron. In these changes entirely new substances 
are produced thus constituting what is known as a 
chemical change. 

Elements, Compounds and Mixtures : 

All matter is composed of two or more simpler sub¬ 
stances, and each simple substance is known as an 
element. 

An element may be defined as a simple substance that 
has not been separated, as yet, into anything simpler 
than itself. Examples are; iron, lead, silver, gold, iodine 
and chlorine. A list of elements is given further on. 

A compound is a substance consisting of more than 
one element, and may be defined as a union of two, or 
more, elements chemically combined in definite propor¬ 
tions by weight. Example; hydrogen and oxygen, two 
elements, combine to form water, a compound. 

A mixture is a combination of several substances, and 
may be defined as follows: two or more substances mixed 
without regard to proportion, and easily separated by 
mechanical means. Examples; muddy water, and sul¬ 
phur and iron filings mixed. 

Analysis and Synthesis : 

Analysis is a chemical action which involves the 
separating of a compound into its constituents. An ex¬ 
ample is the breaking up of water into its constituents, 
hydrogen and oxygen, by the passage of an electric cur¬ 
rent through the water. 

Synthesis is a chemical action, and is the reverse of 
analysis. It is the forming of a compound by the com¬ 
bination of two or more elements. An example is the 


84 Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 

taking of oxygen and hydrogen, in proper proportions, 
and passing an electric spark through the mixture, which 
results in the formation of water. 

Atoms and Molecules : 

Elements are composed of atoms, an atom being the 
smallest particle of an element that takes part in a chemi¬ 
cal change; atoms are indivisible; they have affinity for 
each other; atoms combine more readily with atoms of 
other elements. These assumptions are known as the 
atomic theory. 

Atoms of the same element are alike, but atoms of 
different elements differ in form, combining power and 
weight. 

A molecule is the smallest quantity of a substance hav¬ 
ing the properties of the mass. 

When hydrogen and oxygen combine to form the com¬ 
pound, water, this compound possesses different proper¬ 
ties than either of these elements alone. The smallest 
particle of water will have the same properties as the 
largest quantity, and it is the smallest part of a com¬ 
pound or element, which can exist in the free state, re¬ 
taining the properties of the mass, that is known as the 
molecule. 

Atomic and Molecular Weights : 

In calculating the weights of the atoms of the dif¬ 
ferent elements, hydrogen, being the lightest substance 
known, is taken as the unit, and the hydrogen atom is 
given the atomic weight of 1 . Therefore, the atomic 
weight of an atom of any element is the weight of that 
atom compared to an atom of hydrogen. 

Example: The compound, water, has the formula of 
H 2 0 , which simply means one atom of oxygen in com¬ 
bination with two atoms of hydrogen. Oxygen is eight 
times as heavy as hydrogen, so that, if the weight of 
one atom of hydrogen is 1, the weight of two atoms is 
2 , and if the oxygen in water weighs eight times as 
much as the hydrogen, then the one atom of oxygen 
combined with the two atoms of hydrogen must weigh 


85 


Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 

8 x2, or 16. To sum up, the atomic weight of hydrogen 
is 1, and the atomic weight of oxygen is 16. 

The molecular weight is the sum of the atomic weights, 
iixample; the hydrogen molecule contains two atoms, 
the atomic weight being 1, therefore the molecular 
weight is 2. 

Valence : 

Valence is the number which expresses the combining 
power of an element as compared to hydrogen as the 
unit. The valence of hydrogen is always one. 

For example some elements unite with one atom of 
hydrogen, some with two atoms, some with three, etc. 
The formulas of the following substances show that ele- 
m ?j ts TT ^,^ er combining power; hydrochloric 

acid, HC1; water, H 2 0; and ammonia, NH 3 . 

Any element that combines with hydrogen atom for 
atom has a valence of one, if an element combines with, 
or replaces, two hydrogen atoms it is said to have a 
valence of two, etc. A knowledge of valence is an aid 
in writing chemical formulas. 

Radicals : 

Radicals are a group of elements that act as a single 
atom. For example in the compound sodium hydroxide, 
NaOH, the hydrogen and oxygen combine in the form 
of a radical. This combination of hydrogen and oxygen 
is known as the hydroxyl radical. 

Following are some of the radicals: 

Hydroxyl Radical—(OH). 

Ammonium Radical—(NH 4 ). 

Sulphate Radical— (S0 4 ). 

Nitrate Radical—(NO a ). 

Phosphate Radical— ( P0 4 ). 

Carbonate Radical— ( C0 3 ). 

Symbols and Formulas : 

Every element is known by a certain name which may 
be designated by a symbol. 

A symbol is the first letter or the first letter in com¬ 
pany with another letter of the entire name. 


86 Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 

For example, hydrogen is designated by the capital 

letter H; carbon by the letter C; calcium by the letters 
Ca; and zinc by the letters Zn. 

In some cases the symbol is derived from the Latin 
name of the element, as, iron, Fe (ferrum) ; copper, Cu 
(cuprum), and sodium, Na (natrium). 

If more than one atom of an element is desired to be 
expressed the numeral 2 , etc., is placed before the sym¬ 
bol as its coefficient, as 2H, meaning two atoms of 
hydrogen; 3 N, meaning three atoms of nitrogen, etc. 

When atoms are in combination the numbers are writ¬ 
ten as subscripts, as, H 2 which stands for two atoms of 
hydrogen in combination; N 2 which means two atoms 
of nitrogen in combination. 

A formula is formed by the grouping together of the 
symbols of the atoms composing the compound, or 
molecule. 

For example when sodium (natrium) and chlorine 
combine to form common salt, a compound, the combina¬ 
tion of the symbols forming the formula of sodium 
chloride, is as follows, NaCl (sodium chloride). An¬ 
other example is the combination of hydrogen and 
oxygen in the formation of water. Water being com¬ 
posed of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of 
oxygen, its formula is written H 2 0. Thus the formula 
of water means one molecule of water; the one molecule 
containing two atoms of hydrogen to one atom of 
oxvgen; the one molecule being composed of 2 parts by 
weight of hydrogen, and 16 parts by weight of oxygen; 
and 18 parts by weight of water. 

Equations : 

An equation is an expression in chemical language of 
a chemical re-action. The formulas of compounds are 
employed instead of the full name of the compounds. 

To write a chemical equation the substances going into 
the reaction and their formulas must be known, as well 
as the resulting substances and their formulas. 

Every equation should conform to the law of the 
conservation of matter. The resulting substances, or 


Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 


87 


substance, from a chemical reaction have different pro¬ 
perties from the original substances, but the sum of the 
weights of the former must be equal to that of the latter. 

Law of the Conservation of Matter : 

The law of the conservation of matter states that 
the total mass of matter taking part in a chemical re¬ 
action remains unchanged, in other words, although it 
is possible to transform matter from one form to an¬ 
other it is impossible to either destroy or create it, mat¬ 
ter being indestructible, the properties may be changed 
but we always have the same amount of matter after 
the change as before. 

Some of the common elements, with their atomic 
weights, valence and symbols : 


Element 

Symbol 

Atomic 

Weights 

Valence 

Aluminum 

A1 

27 

III 


Arsenic 

As 

75 

III 

V 

Bromine 

Br 

80 

I 


Carbon 

C 

12 

IV 


Chlorine 

Cl 

35.5 

I 


Copper 

Cu 

63.6 

I 

II 

Gold 

Au 

197 

I 

III 

Hydrogen 

H 

1 

I 


Iodine 

I 

127 

I 


Iron 

Fe 

56 

II 

III 

Lead 

Pb 

207 

II 

IV 

Magnesium 

Mg 

24 

II 


Mercury 

Hg 

200 

I 

II 

Nickel 

Ni 

58.7 

II 


Nitrogen 

N 

14 

III 

V 

Oxygen 

0 

16 

II 


Phosphorus 

P 

31 

III 

V 

Platinum 

Pt 

195 

IV 


Potassium 

K 

39 

I 


Silver 

A g 

108 

I 


Sodium 

Na 

23 

I 


Sulphur 

S 

32 

II 

IV 

Tin 

Sn 

119 

II 

IV 

Zinc 

Zn 

65 

II 



88 Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 

OXYGEN:—Co¬ 
occurrence : Oxygen is the most abundant element. 
It is found free and in compounds. It forms 48% of 
the earth’s crust; 20 % of air; 90% of water; and about 
50% of rock. 

Preparation of Oxygen: 

1. By the decomposition of mercuric oxide, HgO. 

Mercuric Oxide = Mercury + Oxygen. 

2. By decomposition of potassium chlorate, KC10 3 , 
Potassium Chlorate = Potassium Chloride + 
Oxygen. 

Manganese dioxide, Mn0 2 , is mixed with the potas¬ 
sium chlorate to speed up the reaction, but in the re¬ 
action is not itself permanently changed. A substance 
which increases the speed of a chemical reaction, with¬ 
out itself being permanently changed, is known as a 
catalytic agent. 

3. By electrolysis of water. 

Water = Hydrogen Oxygen. 

Electrolysis is the term that is applied to a chemical 
reaction that occurs when a current of electricity is 
passed through a solution in such a way that the solu¬ 
tion is decomposed. 

Physical Properties: Colorless, odorless, and tasteless 
gas. 'Is slightly heavier than air. Is slightly soluble in 
water, and may be liquified and solidified. 

Chemical Properties: Very active. Its most notice¬ 
able chemical property is its tendency to combine with 
other elements, forming oxides. It will combine with 
most elements. It is a supporter of combustion,, most 
substances burning more readily in oxygen than in the 
air. 

Uses: Oxygen is essential to both plant and animal 
life. It is necessary for the carrying on of life proc¬ 
esses. Oxygen during respiration is absorbed by the 
blood and carried to all parts of the body, the various 
tissues being slowly oxidized with the liberation of heat. 


Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 89 

The product of oxidation is carbon dioxide, C0 2 , which 
is carried to the lungs, by the blood, and there exhaled. 

Oxygen is employed in medicine where it is neces¬ 
sary to artificially stimulate the patient’s respiration. 

When hydrogen burns in oxygen an exceedingly high 
temperature results and due to this oxygen is used in 
the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe and the calcium light. 

Test for Oxygen : Place a splinter of wood, with a 
glowing coal attached, into the vessel, and if the coal 
bursts into flame oxygen is present. 

Definitions : 

Oxide : A substance resulting from the union of oxy¬ 
gen with some other substance. 

Oxidation : The combining of oxygen with some 

other substance. 

Slow Oxidation : The combining of oxygen with some 
other substance without the accompaniment of noticeable 
light and heat. Iron rusting is an example. 

Combustion : A chemical action with the evolution 
of heat and light. 

Spontaneous Combustion : An active burning started 
by the accumulation of the heat of a slow oxidation. 
The accumulation of the heat finally brings the tempera¬ 
ture of the substance to its kindling point. 

Kindling Temperature : This is the lowest tempera¬ 
ture at which anything will take fire and burn. 

Burning : Oxidation with noticeable light and heat. 

Explosion : Oxidation with the evolution of light, 
heat and sound. 

Reduction : The process of taking oxygen away from 
a substance. This is the reverse of oxidation. 

Reducing Agent : A substance having the ability to 
take oxygen away from a substance. 

HYDROGEN:—Id- 

Occurrence: Water is the chief source. Is never 
free in nature, but is always found in combination with 
some other element. All acids contain hydrogen, and 
most organic compounds contain it. 


90 Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 

Preparation of Hydrogen : 

1. By the action between water and a metal, as: 

Sodium -f- Water = Sodium Hydroxide + hy¬ 
drogen. 

2. Electrolysis of water. 

Water = Hydrogen -f- Oxygen. 

3. Replacement in an acid by a metal, as: 

Zinc -f- Sulphuric Acid = Zinc Sulphate -|- Hy¬ 
drogen. 

Physical Properties : Colorless, odorless, and tasteless 
gas. LIGHTEST SUBSTANCE KNOWN. Insoluble 
in water. 

Chemical Properties : Does not combine with many 
elements. Does not support combustion. Burns readily 
in the air, and when it burns forms water. Has a strong 
affinity for oxygen, and will take oxygen out of any 
compound, and, therefore, is a reducing agent. 

Test for Hydrogen : Place a lighted splinter of wood 
into a bottle containing gas, and if a sharp explosion 
results hydrogen is present. 

Uses: To fill balloons, and is employed in the cal¬ 
cium light, and the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe. 

WATER :—Hco¬ 
occurrence: The most abundant substance known. 
In the liquid state it makes up about of the earth's 
surface. The human body contains about 75% of water, 
and many foods are largely composed of it. 

Water is used as the unit of specific gravity, and it is 
the universal solvent, everything being more, or less, 
soluble in water. 

Water can absorb more heat than any other substance, 
but it is a poor conductor of heat and electricity. In 
the frozen state it is lighter than the liquid. 

Composition : Water is composed of one part of hy¬ 
drogen to eight parts of oxygen, by weight, and two 
volumes of hydrogen to one volume of oxygen, by 
volume. 

Purification of Water : For drinking purposes water 


Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 91 

may be purified in any one of three ways, namely, by 
filtration; by boiling; or by distillation. 

Filtration is accomplished by the passing of water 
through a porous material, such as charcoal and sand. 

Boiling is the process employed to destroy microbic 
life, and this method also drives off gases. 

Distillation consists of first converting the water into 
a vapor, and then cooling the vapor. In this method 
substances having a lower boiling point than water are 
driven off. 

Boiling and Freezing Points of Water : 

Centigrade: Boiling point, 100°C., freezing point, 
0°C. On the centigrade thermometer the distance be¬ 
tween these two points is divided into 100 equal parts 
called degrees. The centigrade scale is employed in 
scientific work. 

Fahrenheit : Boiling point, 212°F., freezing point, 
32°F. On the Fahrenheit thermometer the distance be¬ 
tween these two points is divided into 180 equal parts, 
each part called a degree. 

Physical Properties : Colorless, odorless, and taste¬ 
less. Poor conductor of heat. The universal solvent. 

Chemical Properties : Decomposable into its constit¬ 
uents, hydrogen and oxygen, by electric current. Reacts 
with some metals yielding hydroxides and hydrogen. Re¬ 
acts with certain non-metals yielding acids and oxygen. 

In the formation of water, the proportions of hydrogen 
and oxygen, by volume and weight, are always the same. 
All compounds combine in the same proportions, accord¬ 
ing to the law of definite proportions. 

The Law of Definite Proportions : “Compounds are 
composed of elements united in definite proportions by 
weight.” 

Uses of Water : For drinking purposes. For dis¬ 
tributing heat by hot water and steam. It is used in 
chemical manufacturing processes. 

SOLUTIONS : 

A solution is a diffusion of a solid in a liquid, or in 


92 Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 

other words, it is an equal distribution of a solute in a 
solvent. 

A solute is the dissolved substance. 

A solvent is a liquid used to dissolve a substance. 

A dilute solution is one in which a small quantity of 
the solute has been dissolved in a given quantity of the 
solvent. 

A concentrated solution is one in which a large quan¬ 
tity of the solute has been dissolved in a given quantity 
of the solvent. 

A saturated solution is one in which the solvent has 
dissolved all of the solute that it can hold at a given 
temperature. 

A supersaturated solution is one in which the stage of 
saturation has been passed, and is accomplished by heat¬ 
ing the solvent. The solution when allowed to cool is 
supersaturated at the lower temperature. 

A solid can be removed from solution by crystalliza¬ 
tion, or precipitation. 

Crystallization : If a hot saturated solution is allowed 
to slowly cool, the solid will separate from the liquid 
in crystals, the latter having a definite shape. This proc¬ 
ess is known as crystallization. 

Precipitation : This can be accomplished by adding 
some liquid in which the solid is not soluble. For ex¬ 
ample, if water is added to a solution of camphor in 
alcohol, the camphor will separate from the solution, 
the camphor being soluble in alcohol, but not in water. 
In this action the solid is precipitated, and is therefore 
known as a precipitate. 

Crystals : These are substances having a characteris¬ 
tic shape and lustre, usually owing its shape to the water 
content. This is known as the water of crystallization. 

Water of Crystallization is the definite amount of 
water with which some substances combine when they 
separate from a solution as crystals. Often when a 
solution saturated at a high temperature is allowed to 
cool, with consequent supersaturation, the dissolved sub¬ 
stance will separate in crystals. 

Some substances will absorb moisture from the air, 


93 


Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 

and a substance possessing such a property is said to be 
hygroscopic, and if enough of the moisture is absorbed 
so that the substance becomes wet, it is said to be 
deliquescent. 

A substance that loses the water of crystallization 
upon its exposure to the air is said to be efflorescent. 

There are three ways of hastening solutions, namely, 
by fine division of the solute; by stirring and shaking; 
and by heating the solvent. 

The amount of the solute in a given quantity of the 
solvent causes the solution to be either unsaturated, 
saturated, or supersaturated. 

AIR: 

Air is made up of a mixture of gases. It is a physical 
mixture, and may be defined as the gaseous envelope 
surrounding the earth. Air is about 800 miles in height. 

Composition of Air: 

Oxygen—21%. 

Nitrogen—78%. 

Carbon dioxide—0.04%. 

Argon—0.9%. 

Water, dust, etc., in minute quantities. 

Oxygen is the most important reagent in the air. 

Nitrogen has very little effect, acting as a diluent (an 
agent that increases fluidity), and it is made use of by 
the legumes. 

Carbon dioxide is necessary for plant life, and it has 
lately been discovered that it has some effect on rusting, 
as without carbon dioxide rusting will not take place. 

Dust, next to oxygen, is the most important constitu¬ 
ent of the air, as it acts as a refractor of light. If this 
did not occur the sun could not be seen until it hit the 
earth. Dust also absorbs and refracts heat rays, and 
acts as a nucleus around which water vapor condenses. 
Water vapor is precipitated into rain. 

HYDROGEN PEROXIDE:—H 2 0 2 — 

Hydrogen and oxygen form a compound other than 
water, namely, hydrogen peroxide, or dioxide, in which 


94 Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 

the weights of hydrogen and oxygen, are as 1 to 16. 

This brings in the Law of Multiple Proportions; i. e., 
“Whenever two substances, A and B, unite to form more 
than one compound, if we consider a fixed weight of A, 
the weights of B which combine with this fixed weight 
stand in simple multiple relation to one another.” 

Example: 

Water—1 H to 8 0. 

Peroxide—1 H to 16 0. 

16 is a multiple of 8. 

Preparation of Hydrogen Peroxide : 

By the action of barium peroxide and sulphuric acid. 

Barium Peroxide + Sulphuric Acid = Barium Sul¬ 
phate + Hydrogen Peroxide. 

Ba0 2 + H 2 S0 4 = BaS0 4 + H 2 0 2 . 

This is done without the application of heat. 

Physical Properties : Colorless, oily fluid, heavy, 
slight odor, and an acrid taste. Is unstable, readily de¬ 
composing in the presence of light and heat. 

Chemical Properties : Is an oxidizing agent, bleach¬ 
ing agent, its bleaching properties being due to the libera¬ 
tion of the extra atom of oxygen. 

H 2 0 2 = water, H 2 0, and nascent oxygen. 

Nascent oxygen is oxygen at the moment of its 
liberation. 

Uses: As an antiseptic, although its antiseptic quali¬ 
ties are limited. Is used to bleach hair, wool, silk, fea¬ 
thers, etc., by the oxidation of the coloring matter. 

NITROGEN:—N— 

Occurrence : Constitutes a large part of the atmos¬ 
phere. Is found in a few mineral compounds. It is one 
of the most characteristic elements in living organisms, 
being a constituent of protein, a nitrogenous organic 
compound which makes up the living matter of muscles 
and cell protoplasm. 

Preparation of Nitrogen: 

1. By the burning of phosphorus in the air. The 


Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 95 

phosphorus combining with the oxygen forms phos¬ 
phorus pentoxide, the nitrogen remaining. 

4P -f 50 2 == 2 P 2 0 5 . 

2. By forcing a stream of air over hot copper filings. 
In this method of preparing nitrogen, the oxygen in the 
air combines with the copper, forming the oxide of cop¬ 
per, and the nitrogen remains. 

Properties : Colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas. Very 
inert. Unites with only a few elements and only at a 
very high temperature. The compounds formed are un¬ 
stable. Forms ammonia with hydrogen. Does not sup¬ 
port combustion. 

CARBON:—C— 

Occurence : Exists in three forms, and is found in 
nature in many varieties. 

Allotropic Forms of Carbon: 

By allotropic forms is meant the varieties of the same 
element, in which different characteristics are present. 

Carbon appears in the following forms: diamond, the 
purest form of carbon, and this is the hardest substance 
known; graphite, a soft, black, solid, which is non-trans¬ 
parent ; amorphous, which includes various forms of 
carbon, such as, charcoal, lampblack, coal, etc. 

Carbon when heated in the air will form two oxides, 
namely, carbon dioxide, C0 2 , and carbon monoxide, CO. 

CARBON DIOXIDE:—CO — 

Occurence: Formed by the combustion of coal, wood, 
and gas, and from the decay of vegetable and animal 
matter. It is found in the air, and in all waters. 

Preparation: 

By treating a carbonate with an acid, such as sulphuric 
acid or hydrochloric acid. 

Example: 

Calcium Carbonate, -f- Hydrochloric Acid — Calcium 
Chloride -f- Carbon Dioxide + Water. 

CaC0 3 + 2HC1 = CaCl 2 + C0 2 + H 2 0. 


96 Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 

Physical Properties : Colorless gas, with little odor, 
and little taste. 1 y 2 times heavier than air. Fairly sol¬ 
uble in water. 

Chemical Properties : Inactive towards most sub¬ 
stances. Does not support combustion. Reacts with 
lime water forming calcium carbonate. 

Uses : In fire extinguishers. In the manufacture of 
soda water, and other effervescent beverages. 

Test for Carbon Dioxide : Lime water, calcium hy¬ 
droxide, Ca(OH) 2 , when in contact with C0 2 produces 
a white, milky, precipitate. 

CARBON MONOXIDE:—CO— 

Preparation: 

By the reduction of C0 2 . Carbon monoxide is a gas 
containing one atom of oxygen. 

Physical Properties : Slight odor, slight taste, and col¬ 
orless. Is lighter than air, and is combustible. Nearly 
insoluble in water. 

Chemical Properties : Burns in the air with a blue 
flame. Acts as a powerful reducing agent. 

Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas, 1/10 of 1% is 
fatal. 

Action of Carbon Monoxide on the Blood: Carbon 
monoxide is chemically different than carbon dioxide, 
for while the hemoglobin of the blood in the absorption 
of carbon dioxide, will readily give it up, when it absorbs 
carbon monoxide a stable compound between the two is 
formed. The hemoglobin of the blood will absorb car¬ 
bon monoxide more readily than carbon dioxide, having 
a preference for the former. As the blood does not 
readily give up the carbon monoxide, the absorption of 
oxygen in the necessary amount is prevented, and death 
results. The combination of carbon monoxide with the 
hemoglobin of the blood gives a characteristic brilliant, 
red color, and the combination is so stable that it can be 
detected in the human body years after death. 

Carbon monoxide when used in the form of illuminat¬ 
ing gas for lighting purposes has added to it, acetylene 


Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 97 


gas, C 2 H 2 , which gives it a characteristic odor, as a 
warning to the consumer, otherwise gas leaks could not 
be detected. 


ACIDS, BASES and SALTS: 

These include a large number of compounds, each 
group having characteristics peculiar to itself. 

Properties of Acids: 

They have a sour taste. Turn blue litmus paper red. 
Will neutralize a base forming a salt and water. 

Composition of Acids: 

All acids contain hydrogen, which can be replaced by a 
metal. However, all compounds that contain hydrogen 
are not acids. All acids contain a non-metal, such as 
chlorine, nitrogen, etc. 


Some of the common acids, and their formulas: 


Mineral Acids: 
Hydrochloric — HC1. 
Sulphuric — H 2 S0 4 . 
Nitric — HN0 3 . 


Organic Acids: 

Acetic — C 2 H 4 0 2 . 
Monochloracetic — 

c 2 h 3 cio 2 . 

Trichloracetic—C 2 HC1 3 0 2 
Citric — C 6 H 8 O t . 

Oxalic — C 2 H 2 0 4 . 


Properties of Bases: 

Usually have a bitter taste. Will turn red litmus 
paper blue. Will neutralize an acid with the formation 
of a salt and water. Are soapy to the touch. 

Bases are substances composed of hydrogen and oxy¬ 
gen in the proportion of 16 to 1. 

An alkali is a soluble base. 


Composition of Bases: 

Bases contain a metal besides hydrogen and oxygen. 
The hydrogen and oxygen, in a base, act as a single 
atom. This type of combination between oxygen and 
hydrogen is known as a radical, the OH combination is 
named the hydroxyl radical. 


98 Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 

Some of the common bases, and their formulas : 

Sodium hydroxide—NaOH—contains sodium, hydro¬ 
gen, and oxygen. 

Potassium hydroxide — KOH — contains potassium, 
hydrogen, and oxygen. 

Properties of Salts : 

Have a characteristic salty taste. Are neutral to litmus 
paper. 

Composition of Salts : 

Contain a metal and a non-metal, and some contain 
oxygen. 

Some of the common salts, and their formulas : 
Sodium chloride — NaCl — contains sodium and 

chlorine. 

Magnesium sulphate — MgS0 4 -— contains magne¬ 
sium, sulphur and oxygen. 

Potassium nitrate —KNO s — contains potassium, 
nitrogen and oxygen. 

N eutralization : 

This is a process in which an acid and a base combine 
so that the properties of both are lost, the result being 
neither an acid nor a base. 

Example: 

Acid -f- Base = Water + Salt 
Litmus Litmus Litmus — Neutral. 

— red — — blue — 

Salts are the product of neutralization: 

Acid Base Water Salt. 

HCI-f NaOH = H 2 0 + NaCl. 

Action of Mineral Acids on the Skin : 

The action of the three most powerful mineral acids 

is as follows: 

Sulphuric acid—will char the tissues—when concen¬ 
trated is a dehydrating agent. 


Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 


99 


will turn the skin yellow—is an oxidizing 


Nitric acid- 
agent. 

Hydrochloric acid—has no action on the skin. 

Alkalies will saponify the fatty materials of proto¬ 
plasm, and will abstract water from the cells. 

HYDROCHLORIC ACID — HCl — (Hydrogen 
Chloride, Muriatic Acid) : 


HYDROGEN CHLORIDE 

Occurence : Free in volcanic gases and in the form 
of chlorides. 


Preparation : 

By the reaction of salt and sulphuric acid. 

2 NaCl + H 2 S0 4 = Na 2 S0 4 + 2 HCl. 

Sodium Chloride -f- Sulphuric Acid = Sodium Sul¬ 
phate -f- Hydrogen Chloride. 

Properties : A colorless gas, soluble in water. The 
water solution of hydrogen chloride is hydrochloric acid. 
Fumes when in contact with air. Has a pungent odor. 
Does not support combustion. Is heavier than air. 

Hydrochloric acid contains hydrogen and chlorine. 
SULPHURIC ACID — H 2 S0 4 — (Oil of Vitriol) : 

Preparation : 

The preparation of sulphuric acid is complicated, and 
consists of several steps. Ores containing sulphur are 
burned in a furnace with air; the resulting compound 
being sulphur dioxide, and other sulphur compounds, 
which are cooled, and freed of impurities and moisture. 
The gases, after being purified, are mixed with air and 
passed through a tube containing a catalytic agent, such 
as finely divided platinum. Sulphur trioxide is formed 
when the sulphur dioxide combines with the oxygen of 
the air, and this (sulphur trioxide) is passed through 
concentrated sulphuric acid, and the solution is diluted. 

The following equations show the steps followed: 

(1) S + o 2 = so 2 

(2) 2 S0 2 + 0 2 = 2 S0 3 . 

(3) SO s + H 2 S0 4 = h 2 so 4 . S0 3 . 

(4) H 2 S0 4 . S0 3 + H 2 0 = 2 H 2 S0 4 . 


100 Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 

Properties : Is a heavy, oily liquid, colorless when 
pure. Absorbs moisture from the air. Will char or¬ 
ganic substances. Will abstract water. Has a very high 
boiling point. When mixed with water heat is evolved. 

Uses : It is used in the manufacture of acids. Is used 
in electric batteries. Used in the manufacture of dye¬ 
stuffs. Employed in the laboratory as a dehydrating 
agent. 

Sulphuric acid contains hydrogen, sulphur and oxygen. 

NITRIC ACID — HN0 3 — (Aqua Fortis) : 

Preparation : 

By the action, on a nitrate, of concentrated sulphuric 
acid. These are heated in a retort, the end of which dips 
into a receiving vessel, which is kept cool by running 
water. 

2 KN0 3 + H 2 S0 4 = 2 HN0 3 + K 2 S0 4 . 

Potassium Nitrate -f- Sulphuric Acid = Nitric Acid 
+ Potassium Sulphate. 

Properties : Colorless liquid. Decomposes when ex¬ 
posed to sunlight or heat. Has a corrosive action. Turns 
the skin yellow. Is a powerful oxidizing agent. 

Uses : Used in the manufacture of dyestuffs, and in 
refining gold and silver. 

Nitric acid contains hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. 

SODIUM HYDROXIDE — NaOH — 

Preparation : 

By electrolysis of sodium chloride. 

2 NaCl + 2 H 2 0 = 2 NaOH + Cl 2 + H 2 . 

Sodium Chloride -f- Water = Sodium Hydroxide 
-|- Chlorine -j- Hydrogen. 

Properties : A white solid. Absorbs water from the 
air. Will also absorb carbon dioxide. Soluble in water. 

Uses: Used in the manufacture of soap, dyestuffs, etc. 

POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE — KOH — (Caustic 
Potash) : 


Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 101 

Similar to sodium hydroxide in properties, etc. 

Used in the manufacture of soap, and in the laboratory 
as a reagent. 

SODIUM CHLORIDE — NaCl — 

This is a very abundant compound, and it is prepared 
by the evaporation of sea water by exposure to the sun. 
It is soluble in water and is the essential ingredient in 
food. It is employed in the manufacture of bleaching 
powder, and in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid, and 
also chlorine gas. 

SUMMARY OF REACTIONS MENTIONED : 

Every equation must conform to the law of conser¬ 
vation of matter, and in writing a finished equation the 
equation must “balance,” in other words, the sum of the 
molecular weights on one side of the equation must equal 
the sum of the molecular weights on the other. 

In the preparation of oxygen one of the methods 
mentioned was decomposition of mercuric oxide, and 
this reaction may be represented by the following equa¬ 
tion, “HgO = H g + O”— 

As that equation stands, it is balanced, BUT the 
smallest amount of oxygen we can have in the combined 
state is a molecule, and a molecule of oxygen is repre¬ 
sented by 0 2 , so that in the writing of this reaction it 
should read: 

HgO = Hg + 0 2 . 

Here we see that the equation does not balance as we 
-have two atoms of oxygen on one side to one atom of 
oxygen on the other. This equation can be readily bal¬ 
anced by placing such a co-efficient in front of the for¬ 
mula, HgO, as may be needed to balance the entire equa¬ 
tion, as: 

2 HgO == 2 Hg + 0 2 

In balancing equations any numbers may be used as 
co-efficients. 


102 Fundamentals of Elementary Chemistry 


The following are equations used in this chapter, and 
are properly balanced : 

2 HgO = 2 Hg + 0 2 . 

Mercuric Oxide = Mercury -f- Oxygen. 

2 KCIO 3 = 2 KC1 + 3 0 2 . 

Potassium Chlorate = Potassium Chloride -f- Oxygen. 

2 KCIO 3 + Mn0 2 = 2 KC1 + 3 0 2 + MnO, (cat¬ 
alytic agent). 

Potassium Chlorate -f- Manganese Dioxide = Potas¬ 
sium Chloride -f- Oxygen + Manganese Dioxide. 

2 H 2 0 = 2 H 2 + 0 2 . 

Water = Hydrogen -f- Oxygen. 

2 Na + 2 H 2 0 = 2 NaOH + H 2 . 

Sodium -f- Water = Sodium Hydroxide -f- Hydrogen. 

Zn + H 2 S0 4 = ZnS0 4 + H 2 . 

Zinc + Sulphuric Acid = Zinc Sulphate + Hydrogen. 

Ba0 2 + H 2 S0 4 == BaS0 4 + H 2 0 2 . 

Barium Peroxide -f- Sulphuric Acid = Barium Sul¬ 
phate -f- Hydrogen Peroxide. 

4P + 5 0 2 =2 P 2 O s . 

Phosphorus + Oxygen = Phosphorus Pentoxide. 

CaCO s + 2 HC1 — CaCl 2 + C0 2 + H 2 0. 

Calcium Carbonate -|- Hydrochloric Acid == Calcium 
Chloride + Carbon Dioxide + Water. 

NaOH + HC1 = NaCl + H 2 0. 

Sodium Hydroxide -f- Hydrochloric Acid = Sodium 
Chloride Water. 

2 NaCl + H 2 S0 4 = Na 2 S0 4 + 2 HC1. 

Sodium Chloride + Sulphuric Acid = Sodium Sul¬ 
phate + Hydrochloric Acid. 

2 KN0 3 + H 2 S0 4 = 2 HN0 3 + K 2 S0 4 . , 

Potassium Nitrate -f- Sulphuric Acid = Nitric Acid 
+ Potassium Sulphate. 

2 NaCl + 2 H 2 0 = 2 NaOH + H 2 + Cl 2 . 

Sodium Chloride Water = Sodium Hydroxide -f- 
Hydrogen -|- Chlorine. 


GLOSSARY 

NOTE —(Where a word is repeated, as: “Bacillus, Bacilli/’ the former 
is its singular form and the latter its plural form. Where more than one 
definition is given under the principal word, the latter is not repeated in 
full, but the first letter is used as an abbreviation, as: " Adenoid —( defi¬ 
nition ); A. Tissue. ( definition the “A.” standing for Adenoid, and in 
full meaning Adenoid Tissue. This method is followed throughout the 
glossary.) 

A. 

Abrasion—An excoriation of the skin or mucous membrane. 
Abscess—A circumscribed cavity containing pus. 

Acid—The name applied to a large number of compounds con¬ 
taining one or more atoms of hydrogen which may be dis¬ 
placed by a metal. 

Adenoid—Resembling a gland; A tissue. The textures of the body. 
See Tissue. 

Aerobes—Organisms requiring air or oxygen to maintain life. 
Akinesis or fission—Direct cell division; reproduction by splitting 
into two or more equal parts. 

Albumin—A proteid, animal or vegetable, which is soluble in water 
and coagulable by heat. 

Albuminate—A basic compound of albumin. 

Allotropic—Pertaining to or characterized by allotropy. 
Allotropism, Allotrophy—A variation of physical properties without 
a change in chemic composition. 

Amorphous—Formless; irregularly shaped. 

Anaerobes—Organisms living without air. 

Analysis—The resolution of a body into its elements. 

Anastomose—Pertaining to anastomosis. 

Anastomosis—The junction of vessels or hollow organs. 

Anthrax —A carbuncle; the carbuncular disease caused in man by 
inoculation from affected sheep and cattle. 

Antisepsis—The prevention of sepsis. 

Antiseptic—An agent which will prevent or inhibit the growth of 
bacteria.' 

Antitoxin—A substance developed in the body and counteracting 
a poison. 

Aorta—The chief artery or main trunk of the arterial system which 
supplies all parts of the body, excepting the lungs, with 
arterialized blood. 

Aponeurosis—A fibrous expansion of a tendon. 

Apoplexy—Paralysis from rupture of a cerebral vessel. 

Aqueous—Watery; pertaining to water. 

Arterial—Pertaining to an artery. 

Artery—A vessel carrying blood from the heart. 

Arthritis—Inflammation of a joint. 

Asepsis—An absence of septic matter. 

Astringent—An agent that produces contraction of the tissues. 
Atom—The ultimate unit of an element. 

Attenuated—Thinned; A. Serum. A weakened serum. 

Auditory—Pertaining to the act or organs of hearing. 

Auricle—1. The external ear; 2. One of the upper cavities of 
the heart. 

Axilemma—The sheath of an axis-cylinder. 

Axiscylinder—The central core of a nerve fibre. 

Axone—An unbranched nerve-cell process. 


B. 

Bacillus, Bacilli—A rod-shaped micro-organism; the most import¬ 
ant group of bacteria. 

Bactericidal—Destroying bacteria. 

Bacterin—Any vaccine prepared from a specific bacterium. 

103 


Bacteriologist—One versed in bacteriology. 

Bacteriology—The science of microorganisms. . 

Bacterium, Bacteria—A genus of fission-fungi; a unicellular micro- 
organism of vegetal origin. 

Balancing—A process employed in chemistry consisting of the plac¬ 
ing of such co-efficients before formulas so that the molecular 
weights on one side of a chemical equation will equal the mole¬ 
cular weights on the other side. 

Base_An element or radical with which an acid may unite to 

form a salt 

Bleach—To make white by removing color by the action of a 


chemical. , , . ,. 

Bleaching Agent—A substance having bleaching properties. 

Blister—A vesicle containing serum. 

Blood—The nutritive fluid circulating in the arteries and veins; 
B. Corpuscles. The cellular elements of the blood; blood-cells; 
B. Plasma. The fluid portion of the blood. 

Boil—A furuncle; a localized abscess of the skin. 

Bronchus, Bronchi—One of the main branches of the trachea. 
Burn—A lesion of tissue from dry heat or flame. 

Burning—Oxidation with noticeable light and heat. 


C. 

Capillary—A minute blood vessel. 

Capsule—An envelope surrounding certain organisms. 

Carbuncle—A large circumscribed inflammation of the subcutaneous 
tissue. 

Cardiac—Pertaining to the heart. 

Cartilage—Gristle; a non-vascular elastic tissue softer than bone. 

Catalytic Agent—A substance which increases the speed of a chem¬ 
ical change without itself being permanently changed. 

Caustic—A substance which burns; an escharotic. 

Cell—A small protoplasmic mass, usually nucleated. 

Centrosome—A rounded body alongside the nucleus of a cell that 
is undergoing karyokinesis. 

Cerebellar—Pertaining to the cerebellum. 

Cerebellum—The inferior part of the brain. 

Cerebral—Relating to the brain. 

Cerebrum—The chief portion of the brain. 

Cervical—Pertaining to the neck. 

Chemical—Pertaining to chemistry; C. Change. A change which 
affects the composition of a substance; C. Equation. The for¬ 
mula representing a chemic reaction; C. Formula. A group of 
symbols, expressing the composition of a chemical compound; 
C. Reaction. The action of reagents; C. Symbol. A letter, or 
letters, representing an element. 

Chemistry—The science of the molecular and atomic structure of 
bodies. 

Chromosome—A chromatin-fibre formed during karyokinesis. 

Clavicle—The collar bone. 

Coccus, Cocci—A round, or dot-like micro-organism, usually 
occurring in pairs. 

Collapse—Marked depression of the vital activities of the body. 

Combustion—The process of oxidation; C. Spontaneous. An active 
burning started by the accumulation of the heat of a slow 
oxidation. 

Compound—A substance consisting of more than one element. 

Compress—Folded cloths for local pressure. 

Concentrated—Made stronger or purer. 

Concha—The outer ear. 

Conjunctiva—The mucous membrane of the eye. 

Constituent—An essential or component part. 

Constitution—1. Composition; 2. The general temperament of the 
body. 

Constitutional—Inherent in the constitution; fundamental. 

Consumption—Tuberculosis; an infectious disease due to a specific 
bacillus, characterized by the formation of tubercles. 

104 


Contortion—A twist; flexure. 

Contraindicated—Forbidden by a peculiarity of the disease. 

Convulsion—A violent involuntary contraction; a spasm or fit. 

Corium—The deep layer of the cutis; the derma. 

Cornea—The transparent anterior part of the eyeball. 

Coronary—Encircling, as a vessel or nerve; C. Arteries. The 
arteries around the heart and lips 

Corpuscle—1. A minute body; 2. A cell. 

Corpuscles of the Blood—See Blood. 

Corrode—To eat away gradually. 

Corrosive—A substance that eats away or destroys. 

Cortex—The second layer of a hair. 

Counter-irritant—An agent producing counter-irritation. 

Counterirritation—The superficial irritation of a part of the body 
to produce a good effect on another diseased part. 

Cranial—Pertaining to the cranium. 

Cranium—The skull; the bony case of the brain. 

Crystalline—Pertaining to, or having the form of, a crystal. 

Crystallization—The formation of crystals. 

Crystallize—To cause to form crystals or a crystalline structure. 

Crystals—Solid substances of definite geometric form, resulting 
from the action of natural forces. 

Culture—Propagation of germs in suitable fluids or other media. 

Cutaneous—Pertaining to the skin. 

Cuticle—The epidermis or scarf-skin; C. of Hair. The outermost 
layer of a hair. 

Cutis—The derma or true skin; C. Vera. The Corium. 

Cytoplasm—See Protoplasm. 

D. 

Decomposition—1. Putrefaction; 2. The analysis of a body. 

Dehydration—The removal of the constitutional water from a salt. 

Deliquescent—Liquefying from absorption of atmospheric mois¬ 
ture. 

Dendrite—A protoplasmic process of a nerve-cell. 

Depression—1. A hollow or fossa; 2. A depressed condition. 

Derma—The true skin; the corium. 

Dermal—Pertaining to the skin. 

Digestion—Conversion of food into chyme and chyle. 

Digestive—Pertaining to or aiding digestion; D. Tract. The diges¬ 
tive canal, extending from the mouth to the anus (also called 
the alimentary tract). 

Digital—Pertaining to the fingers or toes. 

Diphtheria—An infectious depressing disease with a membranous 
exudation on mucous membranes, commonly on the throat. 

Diplococcus, Diplococci—A micrococcus whose spherules are joined 
two and two. 

Disease—A pathologic condition of any part or organ of the body, 
or of the mind. 

Disinfectant—An agent destroying germs. 

Distal—Peripheral; away from the centre. 

Distillation—Vaporization of liquid with subsequent condensation; 
D. Destructive. The decomposition of a substance in a closed 
vessel so as to obtain liquid products; D. Fractional. The 
separation of a complex substance by successive distillations. 

Duct—A tube to convey a liquid. 

Dura, or Dura Mater—The outer membrane of the brain and 
spinal cord. 

Dysentery—Inflammation and ulceration of the intestinal mucous 
membrane, with bloody evacuations; D. Amebic. Dysentery 
due to the presence of amebas, (protozoa). 

E. 

Effete—Worn out; barren. 

Effleurage—In massage, stroking toward the centre. 

Efflorescent—Drying from loss of the water of crystallization, as 
certain salts. 

Electrolysis—Dissolution of a compound-body by electricity. 

Element—An ultimate constituent. 

105 


Elimination—Excretion. 

Embryo—The first germ or rudiment of an organism. 

Embryonic— Pertaining to the embryo; rudimentary. 

Emesis—The act of vomiting. 

Emetic—An agent causing emesis. 

Encapsulated—Surrounded with a capsule. 

Endocarditis—Inflammation of the endocardium. 

Endocardium—The transparent lining membrane of the heait. 

Endoneurium—Delicate connective tissue around nerve-fibres. 

Endothelium—Lining membrane of vascular and serous cavities 

Endotoxin—A toxin which remains within the body of a bacterium. 

Environment—The aggregate of surrounding influences. 

Epidermal, Epidermic—Pertaining to the epidermis. 

Epidermis—The outer layer of the skin; the scarf skin. 

Epilepsy—A nervous disease with loss of consciousness, and tonic 
and clonic convulsions. 

Epileptic—Pertaining to epilepsy. 

Epineurium—The nerve-sheath. _ 

Epithelial—Pertaining to epithelium; E. Tissue. See Tissue. 

Epithelium—The cells covering all cutaneous and mucous surfaces, 
together with the secreting cells of glands developed from 
ectoderm (one of the layers of the embryo). . 

Equation—A collection of chemic symbols so arranged as to indi¬ 
cate the reaction that will take place if the bodies represented 
by the symbols be brought together. . 

Erysipelas—An acute specific inflammation of the skin and sub- 
cutaneous tissues, accompanied by fever and constitutional 


disturbances. 

Erythrocyte—A red blood-corpuscle. 

Esophagus—Canal from the pharynx to the stomach. 

Excretion—The discharge of the waste-products of the body. 
Excretory—Pertaining to excretion. 

Exhaustion—Great loss of vital power. . . 

Exotoxin—A poisonous product liberated by bacteria during their 
life. 

Explosion—Oxidation with the evolution of light, heat and sound. 
Extract—The condensed active principle of a drug; E. Fluid. A 
solution of the solid principles of a vegetable drug. 

Extraction—A drawing out; a removal. 


F. 


Facultative—Pertaining to functional or acquired power. 

Fainting, Swooning—A temporary suspension of respiration and 
circulation. 

Fermentation—Such changes as are effected exclusively by the 
vital action of ferments. 

Fever—A rise of body-temperature, with associated symptoms; F. 
Scarlet. An epidemic contagious disease with fever and scarlet 
eruption; F. Typhoid. See Typhoid. 

FIbrilla, Fibrillae—A small fibre or filament. F. Contractile. One 
having the power to contract; a constituent of the sarcous 
substance of a voluntary muscle fibre. 

Fibrous—Consisting of or pertaining to fibres; F. Tissue. The con¬ 
nective tissue of the body. 

Filament—A thread-like structure. 

Filtration—The process of straining or filtering. 

Fission—Reproduction by splitting into two or more equal parts. 

Flagellum, Flagella—A long, lash-like appendage; a cilium. 

Follicle—A small secretory cavity or sac; F. Hair. The depression 
containing the root of the hair. 

Foramen—A passage or an opening; F. Optic. Passage at apex of 
the orbit for the optic nerve and opthalmic artery. 

Formula—A concise statement of the composition of a body. 

Friction—The act of rubbing; one of the movements in massage. 

Function—The normal or special action of a part. 

Functional—Pertaining to function. 

Fundus—The enlarged portion of certain hollow organs. 

106 


G. 

Gangrene—The mortification or death of soft tissue. 
Gastrointestinal, Gastroenteric—Pertaining to both stomach and 
intestine. 

Germ—A microbe or bacterium. 

Germicidal—Destroying germs. 

Germicide—An agent destroying germs. 

Gland—A secretory organ; G. Sebaceous. A gland in the corium of 
the skin secreting sebum; G. Sudoriferous. A convoluted gland 
in the skin secreting sweat. 

Glandular—Pertaining to a gland; G. Tissue. See Tissue. 

Granule—1. A small rounded grain; 2. A spore. 

H. 

Hair—The hirsute appendage of the skin; H. Bulb. The expanded 
portion at the lower end of a hair-root; H. Follicle. A recess 
lodging the root of a hair; H. Papilla. A portion of the corium 
projecting upward into the centre of a hair-bulb. 

Heart—The hollow muscular body, the centre of the circulatory 
system. 

Helix—The margin of the external ear. 

Hemoglobin—The coloring-matter of red corpuscles. 

Hemorrhage—A flow of blood from the vessels. 

Hereditary—Acquired by inheritance. 

Hirsute—Covered with hair; hairy. 

Histology—The study of the intimate structure of tissues. 
Homogeneous—Having the same nature. 

Hydrophobia—A symptom of rabies. Used as a synonym of 
rabies. 

Hygiene—The science of health. 

Hygienic—Pertaining to hygiene. 

Hygroscopic—Having the property of absorbing moisture from air. 

I. 

Immunity—Freedom from risk of infection. 

Indicated—Pointed out, as a remedy. 

Infection—The communication of disease-germs. 

Infectious—Of the nature of infection; contagious. 

Inflammation—A morbid condition with redness, heat, pain, swell¬ 
ing and impaired function. 

Influenza, La Grippe—A contagious epidemic catarrhal fever with 
great prostration and varying symptoms and sequels. 

Ingredient—Any part of a compound. 

Inhalation—The in-breathing of air or other vapor. 

Inhibit—To check or restrain. 

Injection—1. The forcing of a liquid into a cavity, part, or vessel 
of the body; 2. The liquid injected. 

Inoculation—The introduction of specific virus into the system. 
Inorganic—Devoid of organized structure; I. Acid. An acid with¬ 
out carbon. 

Insoluble—Incapable of solution. 

Intestinal—Pertaining to the intestine. 

Intestine—The digestive tube from the stomach to the anus. 

Iris—The colored membrane of the anterior part of the eye. 
Irritant—An agent producing irritation. 

Irritation—Excitement; stimulation. 

Isolation—The seclusion of patients with contagious diseases. 

K. 

Karyokinesis—Mitosis; indirect nuclear division. 

Kindling Temperature—See Temperature. 

L. 

Laboratory—A place where scientific experiments and operations 
are carried on. 

Lachrymal, Lacrimal—Pertaining to tears; L. Bone. A small bone 
at inner side of orbit. 

La Grippe—See Influenza. 


107 


Larynx—The upper part of windpipe; organ of voice. 

Legume_A two-valved seed-vessel having its seeds attached to one 

side only, as a pea-pod. # 

Leucocyte, Leukocyte—A white blood-corpuscle. 

Liniment—A liquid ointment for external use. 

Liquor—1. A liquid solution; 2. An aqueous solution of a non¬ 
volatile drug. 

Lock-jaw—See Tetanus. 

Lotion—Any medicinal solution for external use. 

Lung—One of the two organs of respiration. . .. 

Lymph—A colorless alkaline fluid in the lymph-tubes of the body. 


M. 

Malaria—An infectious disease caused by the Plasmodium malariae 
in the blood. 

Manipulation—Manual treatment; handling. 

Massage— Manipulation; methodic pressure, friction, and kneading 
of the body. 

Mastication—The process of chewing. . 

Materia Medica—The branch of medical science treating of drugs. 

Matrix—A producing or containing substance; intercellular tissue, 
as of cartilage; M. of Nail. The proximal end of the nail bed. 

Matter—1. Physical substance; 2. Pus. 

Maxilla—One of the upper or lower jaw bones. 

Maxillary— Pertaining to the jaws; M. Bones. The bones of the 

M. Cp^-Degree conferred by the First Institute of Podiatry, New 
York City, the letters being an abbreviation for—Master of 
Chiropody. ^ . , . . 

Measles—An infectious disease of children characterized by fever 
and small red spots on the skin. 

Medulla—1. The spinal cord; 2. The centre layer of a hair. 

Membrana—A membrane; M. Propria. The basement layer of 
the epidermis, and separating it from the true skin. 

Membrane—A thin enveloping or lining substance; M. Basement. 
See Membrana Propria; M. Mucous. The membrane lining those 
cavities and canals communicating with the air. 

Microbe—A micro-organism. 

Microbic—Pertaining to microbes. 

Micro-organism—A minute living body. 

Microscope—An instrument for examining minute objects. 


Microscopic—Minute. 

Mineral—Any inorganic chemic compound found in nature, espe¬ 
cially one that is solid; M. Acid. An inorganic acid. 

Mitosis—See Karyokinesis. 

Mixture—A combination of several substances. 

Molecule—The smallest quantity of a substance that may exist and 
preserve its characteristic qualities. 

Morphological—Pertaining to morphology. 

Morphology—The science of the form and structure of organisms. 

Motile—Capable of spontaneous motion. 

Mucous—The viscid liquid secretion of mucous membrane; M. Mem¬ 
brane. See Membrane. 

Multinucleated—Having many nuclei. 

Mumps—An acute infectious disease marked by swelling of the 
parotid gland. 

Muscle—Organic contractile tissue, the means of animal motion; 
M. Fibre. One of the cylindrical fibres composing voluntary 
muscle tissue. 

Myelin—Medullary sheath of a nerve; the white matter of Schwann. 

Myocardium—The muscular mass of the heart. 


N. 


Nail—The horny lamina covering the back of the terminal phalanx 
of each finger and toe; N. Matrix. See Matrix. 

Nasal—Pertaining to the nose; N. Bones. Two small bones forming 
the arch of the nose; N. Septum. Dividing wall between the 
nostrils. 


108 


Nascent—A term applied to gaseous substances at the moment of 
their liberation from chemic union. 

Nerve—A bundle of nerve-fibres outside the central nervous sys¬ 
tem; N.-fibre. Medullated. A cerebro-spinal nerve-fibre the 
axiscylinder of which is inclosed in a sheath of myelin (white 
matter of Schwann); N.-fibre. Non-medullated. A sympathetic 
nerve-fibre destitute of myelin; N. Vasomotor. Any nerve con¬ 
trolling the caliber of blood-vessels. 

Neuroblast—A cell forming nervous tissue. 

Neurolemma—The sheath incasing a nerve. 

Neurone—The nerve cell inclusive of all its processes. 

Neutralization—The process of checking the action of an agent. 

Neutralize—To render negative or inactive. 

Nitrogenous—Containing nitrogen. 

Nodes of Ranvier—Annular constrictions of the neurolemma, with 
discontinuity of the medullary sheath of the nerve-fibre. 

Nucleolus, Nucleoli—A small granule in the interior of the nucleus. 

Nucleus—The essential part of a typical cell and the controlling 
centre of its activity. 

Nutrition—The process of assimilation of food. 

Nutritious—Yielding nourishment. 

O. 

Obligatory—Compelled to act in a given manner. 

Ocular—Pertaining to the eye. 

Ointment—A soft, fatty, medicated mixture. 

Olfaction—The sense of smell. 

Olfactory—Pertaining to olfaction. 

Optic—Pertaining to vision or its organ; O. Foramen. The sphenoid 
opening for the optic nerve. 

Orbit—The bony cavity for the eyeball. 

Orbital—Pertaining to the orbit. 

Organ—Any part of the body with a special function. 

Organic—Pertaining to or having organs; exhibiting animal or 
vegetable characteristics; O. Acid. An acid containing the car¬ 
boxyl group, CO.OH. 

Organism—A living, organized being. 

Osteomyelitis—Inflammation of the marrow of bone. 

Oxidation—The conversion into an oxide; O. Slow. The combining 
of oxygen with some other substance without the accompani¬ 
ment of noticeable light and heat. 

Oxide—A substance resulting from the union of oxygen with some 
other substance. 

Oxyhemoglobin—Normal hemoglobin in which oxygen is in com¬ 
bination. 

P. 

Palate—The roof of the mouth and floor of the nose; P. Bone. That 
helping to form the outer wall of the nose, the roof of the 
mouth, and the floor of the orbit. 

Palmar—Pertaining to the palm of the hand. 

Palpebra—An eyelid. 

Palpebral—Pertaining to the palpebras. 

Papilla—A small conic eminence; P. of Hair. See Hair. 

Paralysis—Loss of sensation or voluntary motion; P. Infantile. An 
acute inflammation of the gray matter of the spinal cord, a 
disease marked by sudden paralysis of one or more limbs or 
of individual muscle-groups, followed by rapid wasting of the 
affected parts. 

Parasite—An organism that inhabits another organism and obtains 
nourishment from it. 

Pathogenic—Causing disease. 

Pathologic—Pertaining to pathology. 

Pathology—The science of diseases. 

Pericardial—Pertaining to the pericardium. 

Pericardium—Membranous sac around the heart. 

Perineurium—A sheath investing a bundle of nerve-fibres. 

Peripheral—Pertaining to the periphery. 

109 


Periphery—The circumference or bounding line. 

Peritoneal—Pertaining to the peritoneum. 

Peritoneum—Serous membrane lining abdomen. 

Peritonitis—Inflammation of the peritoneum. 

Petrissage—The kneading movement in massage. 

Phalanx—One of the Anger-bones or toe-bones. 

Pharmaceutical—Pertaining to pharmacy. 

Pharmacognosy—The science of drugs and their preparation. 
Pharmacology—The science of the nature and action of drugs. 
Pharmacopeia—The standard handbook of drugs and medicinal 
preparations. . ... 

Pharmacy—The art of preparing and dispensing medicines. 
Pharynx—The musculomembranous sac behind the mouth. 
Phenomenon, Phenomena—A symptom; uncommon occurrence. 
Phonation—The emission of vocal sounds. 

Physiological—Pertaining to physiology. 

Physiology—The science of the functions of the body. 

Pigment—An organic coloring matter. 

Pinna—The external cartilaginous flap of the ear. 

Plantar—Pertaining to the sole of the foot. 

Plasma—The fluid part of the blood and lymph. 

Plexus—A network of nerves or veins. 

Pneumonia—Inflammation of the lungs. 

Podiatrist—One who treats diseases and disorders of the feet. 
Podiatry—The scientific care of the foot in health and in disease. 
Poison—A venomous or toxic agent. 

Powder—A mass of extremely minute particles. 

Precipitate—A substance separated by precipitation. 

Precipitation—The process of throwing down solids from the 
liquids that hold them in solution. 

Prophylactic—Pertaining to prophylaxis. 

Prophylaxis—The prevention of a disease. 

Protein—An organic substance, consisting essentially of carbon, 
hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur, characteristic of liv¬ 
ing matter, and found, in various forms, in animals and plants; 
albumin. 

Protoplasm—Primitive organic cell matter. 

Protozoan, Protozoa—One of a class of unicellular animal organ¬ 
isms. 

Proximal—N earest. 

Ptomain—A crystallizable, nitrogenous basic substance, produced 
by bacteria in dead animal or vegetable matter. Some ptomains 
are highly poisonous. 

Pulmonary—Pertaining to the lungs; P. Circulation. The passage 
of the blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and back to 
the left auricle. 

Purgative—An agent causing watery evacuations. 

Putrefaction—Organic decomposition; decay. 

Pyogenic—Developing or secreting pus. 


Q. 

Quarantine—To isolate on account of suspected infection. 

R. 

Rabies—An extremely fatal disease of animals, corresponding to 
hydrophobia in man. 

Radical, Radicle—A group of atoms having unsatisfied valency. 
Reaction—1. Responsive action; 2. The action of a reagent. 
Reagent—Anything producing a reaction. 

Recur—To return. 

Reducing Agent—A substance having the ability to take oxygen 
away from a substance. 

Reduction—The process of taking oxygen away from a substance. 
The reverse of oxidation. 

Respiration—Inspiration and expiration of air by the lungs; R. 
Artificial. The artificial production of the normal respiratory 
movements. 


110 


Respiratory—Pertaining to respiration; R. Tract. The respiratory 
organs in continuity. 

Resusciation—The bringing to life of one apparently dead. 

Retina—The internal membrane of the eye, the expansion of the 
optic nerve. 

Retort—A vessel with a long neck used in distillation. 

S. 

Salt—Any union of a base with an acid. 

Sanitation—The act of making healthy. 

Saponify—To convert into soap by combination with an alkali. 

Saprophyte—A plant deriving its sustenance from dead organic 
matter. 

Sarcolemma—A delicate membrane surrounding muscle-fibres. 

Sarcoplasm—The hyaline or finely granular interfibrillar substance 
of muscle-tissue. 

Sarcous—Fleshy; S. Substance. The substance of a sarcous ele¬ 
ment. 

Scald—An injury of the soft tissues by hot liquids. 

Scarlet Fever—See Fever. 

Science—Systematized knowledge of any one department of mind 
or matter; acknowledged truths and laws, especially as demon¬ 
strated by induction, experiment, or observation. 

Scientific—Pertaining to, used in, or skilled in, science; skillful. 

Sclera—The white, tough outer membrane of the eyeball. 

Sclerotic—Pertaining to the sclera; S. Coat. The sclera. 

Sebaceous—Pertaining to fat; S. Gland—See Gland. 

Sebum—The secretion of the sebaceous glands. 

Secretion—Function of glands and follicles. 

Secretory—Performing secretion. 

Sedative—1. Soothing; 2. An agent allaying irritability. 

Septicemia—An infection characterized by the presence of bacteria 
in the blood. 

Septum—A dividing membrane or wall; S. Nasal—See Nasal. 

Serum—The fluid constituent of the blood separated by coagula¬ 
tion. 

Shock—A marked lowering of the vital activities from an injury 
or an operation. 

Skin—The external covering of the body; S. Scarf. The epidermis. 

Small-pox—A specific, infectious disease with fever and papular 
eruption, followed by vesicles and pustules, and the produc¬ 
tion of pits. 

Soluble—Capable of being dissolved. 

Solute—The dissolved substance. 

Solution—The diffusion of a solid in a liquid; see chapter on Chem¬ 
istry for dilute, concentrated, saturated, and supersaturated 
solutions. 

Solvent—The liquid used to dissolve a substance. 

Spirillum, Spirilla—A curved, or comma-shaped micro-organism of 
vegetal origin. 

Spirocheta, Spirochetae—An intermediary type of micro-organism, 
between the bacteria and protozoa, being a bacterium having 
the properties of a protozoan. 

Spore—The resting (dormant) stage of a bacterium. The ability 
of certain bacteria to develop spores, when in unfavorable 
environment, endows them with a special resistance against 
destruction. 

Sterile—Free from living matter. 

Sterilization—The destruction of germs. 

Sternum—The flat bone of the breast. 

Stroma—1. Framework of a red blood-corpuscle which holds in its 
meshes the hemoglobin; 2. The foundation tissue of an organ. 

Styptic—Having the property of checking hemorrhage. 

Subcutaneous—Under the skin. 

Sublimation—Vaporization and recondensation. 

Substance—Matter or material. 

Sudoriferous—Carrying sweat; S. Gland—See Gland. 

Swooning—See Fainting. 


Ill 


Symbol—A letter, or letters, representing an element. 

Svnchronous—Occurring at the same time. 

Synthesis—The formation of a compound by uniting its elements. 

Synthetic—Pertaining to synthesis. . ... a 

Systemic— Pertaining to a system or to the body w £|*e, S. 

Circulation. The general circulation as distinct from the pul¬ 
monary. _ 

T. 

Tapotement—The slapping movement in massage. 

Temperature— The degree of intensity of heat or molecular vibra¬ 
tion; T. Kindling. The lowest temperature at which a substance 

will begin to burn. , ,. 

Tetanus_Lock-jaw; a disease with spasmodic and continuous con¬ 
traction of the muscles. ... , 

Therapeutics—The branch of medical science concerned with the 
application of remedies and the treatment of disease. 

Tincture—An alcoholic solution of medicinal substance. 

Tissue_An aggregation of similar cells and fibres, forming a dis¬ 

tinct structure; T. Adenoid. A form of connective tissue in 
which the meshes contain lymphoid cells; T. Connective. A 
general name for all those tissues of the body that support the 
essential elements; T. Epithelial. The epithelium; T Fibrous. 
The connective tissue of the body, consisting of white or yel¬ 
low fibres; T. Glandular. A form of epithelial tissue; T. Muscu¬ 
lar. Muscle; T. Nervous. Tissue characteristic of the nervous 
system, the essential unit being the neurone. 

Tourniquet—An instrument to compress arteries. ... 

Toxin—An amorphous, nitrogenous poison, formed by bacteria in 
both living tissues and dead substances. 

Treatise—A written composition on some particular subject, in 
which its principles are discussed or explained. 

Tuberculosis—See Consumption. 

Tumor—A swelling, an abnormal enlargement. 

Typhoid—Resembling typhus; T. Fever. A cipntinued; acute, infec¬ 
tious fever, with intestinal lesions, eruptions, etc. 

Typhus—An epidemic, contagious fever, with eruption and great 
depression, but no lesion. 

Ultramicroscopic—Cannot be seen under the ordinary microscope. 

Unicellular—Having but one cell. 


V. 

Vaccine—1. Lymph from a cow-pox vesicle; 2. Any substance used 
for preventive inoculation. 

Valence—The combining power of an atom as compared with an 
atom of hydrogen. 

Vascular—Pertaining to vessels. 

Vasomotor—Regulating tension of blood-vessels. 

Vegetal—Pertaining to vegetation. 

Vegetation—Morbid or fungous growth. 

Vein—A vessel returning the blood to the heart. 

Vena—A vein; V. Cava, inferior and superior. The two veins 
emptying into the right auricle of the heart. 

Venous—Pertaining to a vein. 

Ventricle—A small belly-like cavity; V. of Heart. One of the lower 
chambers of the heart. 

Vertebra—A bony segment of the spinal column. 

Vertebral—Pertaining to a vertebra. 

Virulent—Having the nature of a poison. 

Virus—1. A morbid product; 2. A pathogenic microbe. 

Volatile—Readily evaporating. 

W. 

Water of Crystallization—The definite amount of water with which 
some substances combine when they separate from a solution 
as crystals. 

(We are obligated to Gould’s Medical Dictionary for many of the 

above definitions.—Editor.) 

112 


INDEX 


A 


Abscess .10-80 

Acetic cicid .. * * 73" , 76 _f 77'"97 

Acids, or acid!!6-i6-ii-i8-68-70-73-76-77-85-89-94-95-97-98-99-100-101 

acetic .73-78-77-97 

action on the skin of mineral.98-99 

boracic . 68-73 

boric .68-73 

carbolic .8-10-11-18-70-77 

citric .77-97 

common ..:.97 

composition of .97 

first aid in poisoning by.76-77 

hydrochloric .85-95-97-99-101 

mineral .73-76-97-98-99 

monochloracetic .97 

muriatic .85-95-97-99-101 

nitric .97-99-100 

organic .97 

oxalic .97 

picric .!.73 

properties of .97 

sulphuric .94-95-97-98-99-100 

trichloracetic . 97 

Acidum boricum .68-73 

Adrenalin chloride, as a styptic.20 

Adventitia .52 

of arteries .52 

of veins .52 

Aerobes .5 

facultative . 5 

obligatory . 5 

Air .98 

carbon-dioxide in .93 

composition of .93 

nitrogen in .93 

oxygen in . •-93 

Akinesis . 3-22 

Alcohol .6-17-18-67-69-77 

action on the skin of.6-18 

as an antiseptic .6-17-18-57 

ethyl .6-17-18-67-69-77 

first aid in poisoning by.77 

first aid in poisoning by wood.77 

physical characteristics of.67 

physiological action of .67 

source of .67 

use in the beauty parlor of.67 

wood ...•. I'l 

Alkalies .73-76-77-97-99 

action on the skin of.99 

definition of ..97 

first aid in poisoning by.77 

Allotropic forms of carbon .95 

Alum .20-67 

as a styptic .20 

physical characteristics of .67 

source of .67 

use in the beauty parlor of. •••67 

Alumen ..20-67 


113 




























































Alveolar glands . 

Ammonia . 

action of . 

phy deal characteristics of . 

source of . 

use in the beauty parlor of. 

Ammoniae aqua fortior . 

Anaerobes . 

facultative . 

obligatory . 

Analysis . 

Anthrax . 

bacillus of . 

Antisepsis, definition of . 

Antiseptic, definition of . 

Antiseptics, for sterilization . 

Antitoxin, definition of . 

diphtheria . 

tetanus . 

Aorta . 

Apoplexy . 

first aid in . 

Aqua, definition of . 

Aromatic spirit of ammonia, as a stimulant 

Arteries, or artery . 

anterior cerebral . 

anterior choroid . 

anterior meningeal . 

aorta . 

arteriae receptaculi . 

ascending pharyngeal . 

external carotid . 

facial . 

innominate . 

internal carotid . 

internal maxillary . 

left common carotid . 

lingual . 

middle cerebral . 

occipital . 

opthalmic . 

posterior auricular .. 

posterior communicating . 

right common carotid . 

superficial temporal . 

superior thyroid . 

tympanic . 

vidian . 

Arthritis .. 

Artificial respiration . 

Asepsis, definition of . 

Atomic theory . 

Atomic weight . 

Atoms . 

Auricles, of the heart.. 

Auricular-ventricular openings . 

Axilemma . 

Axiscylinder . 

Axone .,... 

axilemma of an . 

axiscylinder of an . 

forms of . 

medullated . 

myelin sheath of medullated . 

neurolemma of an. 

nodes of Ranvier of medullated . 

nonmedullated . 


.33 

.67-S8-85-95 

.88 

.67 

.87 

.38 

.67-68 

. 5 

. 5 

. 5 

.83 

.13 

.13 

.17 

.17 

.6-18 

. 8 

.8-9-13 

.11 

.43-52-53-53 

. .71 

.71 

.66 

.74 

43-51 to 59 inclusive 

.58-59 

.58-59 

.58 

.43-52-53-56 

.58 

.56-57 

.56 

.53-57 

.56 

.56-58 

.56-57 

.56 

.56 

.58-59 

.56-57 

.58 

.56-57 

.58-59 

. 56 

.56-57 

.56 

.58 

. ,...58 

.10 

.71-72 

.16 

.84 

.84 

.84 

_53-54-55-56-59-61 

.63-54-55-56 

.39-40 

.39-40 

..37-38-39-40 

.39-40 

.39-40 

.39 

.39-40 

.39-40 

.39-40 

.39-40 

.39-40 


114 





































































B 


Bacilli . 

Bacillus . 

anthraxis .. 

botulinus .’ 

diphtheria .]. ’ 

influenza .’. .7 

Pfeiffer’s .. 

tetanus . 

tubercle . 

typhosus . 77 7 . 

Bacteria, or bacterium. 

capsule of . 

cell division of.[ * 

cell membrane of . 

description of . 

destruction of .. 

destruction of spore bearing 

flag-ella of . 

forms of . 

modes of entrance of.....!. 

motility of .. 

necessities for growth of . 7 , 
optimum temperature of 

pathogenic . 

pyogenic . 

reproduction of ... 

spore formation of. 

useful variety of . 

Bacterines . 

Basement membrane . 

Bases . 

common . 7 . 

composition of . 7 . 

potassium hydroxide . 

properties of . 

sodium hydroxide .. 

Bed, nail . 

Belladonna . 

Bicarbonate of soda . 

physical characteristics of . 

source of . 

use in the beauty parlor of. 


.1-2-4-10-11-12-13 

.1-2-4-10-11-12-13 

.13 

.13 

.13 

.12 

.12 

.10 

.11 

.12 

1-2-3-4-5-6-7-9-10-11-16 

.1-2-4 

.2-3 

. 2 

. 1 

.5-6-16 

. 7 

.2-4 

.1-2 

. 7 

. 2 

. 4 

. 4 

.3-5-7-11-16 

.9-10 

.2-3 

.4-5 

.3-5 

. 8 

.24-31-34-36 

.97-98-100-101 

.98 

.97 

.98-100-101 

.97 

.85-98-100-101 

.30-31 

.66 

.68-76 

.68 

.68 

.68 


Bichloride of mercury .6-10-12-17-18-68-77 

action of . 68 

action on metal of .......18-68 

as an antiseptic .6-10-12-17-18-68 

first aid in poisoning by. 77 

physical characteristics of . 68 

source of . 68 

use in the beauty parlor of. 68 

Blood .51 to 62 inclusive—75-76-80-96 

aeration of . 56 

arterial .51 to 59 inclusive—75-76 

capillaries .52-53 

capillary . 75 

circulation.51 to 62 inclusive 

circulation, action of massage on.80 

composition of .61 

corpuscles .51-52 

hemoglobin of the .52-96 

supply of the head and face.56 to 62 inclusive 

vascular system .52 

venous .51 to 56 inch—59 to 62 inch—75-76 

vessels, construction of .52-53 

Body, nail .30-31 

Boiling, as a method of purification of water.91 


115 



































































Boils . 10 

Bones, or bone .44-45-46 

cranial .44-46-46 

ethmoid ..44-45-46 

facial .44-45-46 

frontal .44-45-46 

lachrymal .44-45 

malar . 44-45-46 

maxillary, inferior .44-45-46 

maxillary, superior .44-45-46 

nasal .44-45-46 

occipital . 44-45 

palate .44-46 

parietal .44-45-46 

sphenoid .44-45-46 

temporal .;.44-45 

turbinal .44-46 

vomer .44-46 

Boracic acid .68-73 

Boric acid.68-73 

action of .68 

physical characteristics of. 68 

source of .68 

use in the beauty parlor of. 68 

Bulb, hair .26-27 

Burning, chemical definition of.89 

Burns .72-73 

degrees of .72 

first aid in .72-73 

treatment of alkali and mineral acid.73 

Burow’s solution .66 

C 

Capillaries .62-53 

construction of .53 

Carbolic acid .6-10-11-18-70-77 

as an antiseptic .6-10-11-18-70 

characteristics of .70 

first aid in poisoning by.77 

source of . 70 

use in the beauty parlor of.70 

Carbon .4-86-95 

allotropic forms of .95 

occurence of .95 

Carbon-dioxide .77-89-93-95-96-100 

chemical properties of .96 

in air .93 

occurence of .95 

physical properties of .96 

preparation of .95 

test for .96 

uses of .96 

Carbon-monoxide .95-96-97 

action on the blood of. 96 

chemical properties of .96 

for lighting purposes .98-97 

physical properties of .96 

preparation of .96 

Carbuncle .10 

Cardiac muscle tissue .41-43 

description of ..43 

Catalytic agent .87-99 

Caustic potash .70-98-100-101 


116 































































Cell . 

a typical ...‘ ‘ *. 

centrosome of a . 
chromosomes of a ......... 

description of a typical..!! 
membrane of a . 
nucleoli of a . 

nucleus of a .. .. 

protoplasm .. 

reproduction of a ! 

Centigrade scale . 

Central zone, of nail bed! 

Centrosome . 

Change, chemical .... 

physical .\. 

Chemical, change .. 

compounds .. 

elements, list of . 

equations .. 

formulas .!. . . 

mixtures .'!.. 

symbols . !!!!!!!!!! . 

Chemicals, of interest to the beauty 

Chlorinated lime . 

as an antiseptic . !.!!!!! 

Chlorine . 


as an antiseptic . 

water . 

Chromophilic bodies .....!.! 

Chromosomes . 

Circulation .. 

blood .'' ^ 

coronary . !!!!!!! 

pulmonary . !.!! 

systemic . !!!! 

Citric acid . 

Cocci . 

Coccus . 

diplo . 

pneumo ...!. 

staphylo . 

strep to . 

Combustion, definition of . . . 

spontaneous . 

Compound, chemical . 

Compress, for hemorrhage . 
Connective tissue sheath ... 
fibrous layer of ......... 

of hair follicle . 

vascular layer of .... 

vitreous membrane of .. 

Consumption . 

Contractile fibrillae . 

of voluntary muscle fibre 

Coronary circulation . 

Corpuscles, of blood . 

red . 

white . 

Cortex, of hair.!!! 

Cranial bones . 

location of . 

Crystallization ...!!! 

water of .!! 

Crystals . ’ 

Cuticle (see epidermis) . 

of hair . 

of inner root sheath . 


.21-22 

.21-22 

.22 

.. 22 

. 22 

• .~. 22 

.... 22 

. 22 

.22-94 

. 22 

.91 

.31 

.22 

.83 

.82-83 

.83 

.83-86 

. 87 

. 86 - 101-102 

.85-86 

..83 

..••••;. . 

specialist.. 

.!!! 6 

. 6 

.6-83-86-97-98-99-100-101 

. 6 

. 66 

.37-38-39 

.22 

.51 to 62 inclusive 

.51 to 62 inclusive 

.54 

.53-55-56 

.56 

. 77-97 

.1-2-4-9-10-11 

.1-2-4-9-10-11 

. 1-11 

.11 

.10 

. 9 

.89 

.89 

.83-86 

.75 

.27-28-29-35-36 

.27-28-29 

.27-28-29-35-36 

.29 

.29-36 

. 8-11 

.41-42 

.41-42 

•• •'.54 

.51-52 

. 51-52 

.51-52 

.26-27-28 

.44-45-46 

.44-45-46 

.92 

.92-93 

.92 

.23-24-25-27-30-35 

.26-27-28 

.28 


117 





































































D 


Deliquescent substance . 

Dendrites .... 

Derma, or corium . 

layers of the . 

papillary layer of the 
reticular layer of the 

Diplococci . 

Diphtheria . 

antitoxin . 

bacillus of . 

carriers . 

Disinfectant, definition of 
Distal zone, of nail bed.. 

Distillation . 

Drugs, division of . 

Duct, gland . 

Dysentery, amebic . 


E 


Ectoplasm . 

Effleurage . 

Efflorescent substance ..■ 

Eggs, raw, as a soothing liquid. 

Electric shock . 

first aid in . 

Electrolysis ... 

Element, chemical . 

Elements, chemical . 

list of ... 

necessary for bacterial growth 

Endocarditis . 

Endocardium . 

Endoneurium . 

Endoplasm . 

Endotoxins . 

Epidermis, or scarf skin. 

layers of the . 

stratum corneum . 

stratum granulosum . 

stratum lucidum . 

stratum mucosum . 

Epileptic fits . 

first aid in . 

Epineurium . 

Eponychium . 

Equations . 

balancing . 

list of chemical . 

Erysipelas . 

Erythrocytes . 

description of . 

Ether . 

Ethyl alcohol (see alcohol). 

Exhaustion, heat. 

first aid in . 

Exotoxins .... 

Explosion, chemical definition of . 
Extract, fluid, definition of . 

F 


Facial bones . 

location of . 

Fahrenheit scale ... 

Fainting . 

first aid in .... 

Fermentation . 

Fibrillae, contractile 


.93 

.37-38 

23-24-27-35-36 

.23 

.23-24 

.23-24 

. 1-11 

...4-8-9-13-14 

.8-9-13 

.13 

.13-14 

.17 

.31 

.91 

. 66 

.34-35-36 

.14 


... 2 
79-80 
.. .93 
76-77 
...73 
.. .73 
88-90 
.. .83 
. . .83 
.. .87 
. . . 4 
...10 
. . .54 
....40 
... 2 
..3-7 


23-24-25-27-30-35 

.24-25 

.23-24-25 

.23-24 

.23-24-25 

.23-24 

.73-74 

.73-74 

.40 

.30-32 

. 86 - 101-102 

.101 

.102 

.8-10 

.51-52 

.52 

.17-18 


.6-17-18-67-69-77 

.74-75 

.74-75 

.4-7 

.89 

. 66 


44-45-46 
.. .45-46 

.91 

.74 

.74 

. 5 

...41-42 


118 

































































Fibrous layer, of connective tissue sheath 
Filtration . 

First aid in . !!!!!!!!!!! 

apoplexy . 

artificial respiration . 

burns . 

electric shock . .!.!..!!!!!!!! 

epileptic fits. 

fainting- . 

heat exhaustion . !.!.!!!!.!! 

hemorrhage .]. ’ 

nose bleed . 

poisoning . 

scalds . 

swooning .. 

Fission . !!!]!!!. 

Flagella ...." .! 

Fluid, extract, definition of . 

pericardial . 

Follicle, hair . 

connective tissue sheath of .. .*.'." *. .. 

construction of .. 

inner root sheath of . 

outer root sheath of . 

Formaldehyde . 

action of . 

as an antiseptic .... 

characteristics of .. 

preparation of . 

source of . 

-use in the beauty parlor of . 

water solution of . 

Formalin . 

Formulas, chemical . 

Free edge, of nail . 

Friction, in massage . 

Fundus, gland . 


.27-28-29 

.91 

71 to 77 inclusive 

.71 

.71-72 

.72-73 

.73 

.73-74 

.74 

.74-75 

.75-76 

.76 

.76-77 

.72-73 

.74 

. 3 

.2-4 


.66 

.54 

.24-27-28-29-35-36 

,...27-28-29-35-36 

.28 

.27-28-35 

.27-28-35-36 

..6-19-68-69 

.6-69 

..6-19-69 

..69 

..69 

.69 

.69 

.69 

..6-68-69 

.85-86 

.30-31 

.79-80 

.34-35 


G 

Germicide, definition of . 

Glands . 

alveolar . 

classification of . 

histology of . 

racemose . 

saccular . 

sebaceous . 

sudoriferous . 

tubular . 

Grain alcohol (see alcohol). 

Groove, nail . 


.17 

23-24-27-29-33-34-35-36 

.33 

.33 

.33-34-35-36 

.33 

.33 

.24-27-29-34-35-36 

.23-24-34-35-36 

.33 

.6-17-18-67-69 

.30-31 


H 


Hair . 24-26-27-28-29 

arrector pili muscle of.27-29 

bulb .26-27 

composition of .27 

cortex of .26-27-28 

cuticle of .26-27-28 

development of .26 

follicle .24-27-28-29-35-36 

growth, theories of .29 

histology of .26-27-28-29 

medulla of .26-27-28 

papilla .27 

root .26 

shaft .26-27 


119 

































































Heart . ..41-43-52 to 56 incl,, 59-61 

auricles of the .53-54-55-56-59-61 

auricular-ventricular openings of. 53 to 56 inclusive 

chambers of the.53-54-55-56-59-61 

construction of the ... 53 - 54-55 

endocardium of . 54 

location of the..... .53 

membrane of the ...“... ... 53-54 

muscle tissue, histology of .41-43 

myocardium of. 54 

pericardial fluid of . 54 

pericardium of . 54 

valves of . 54 

ventricles of the ..53-54-55-56 

Heat exhaustion .74-75 

first aid in . . 74-75 

Henle’s layer, of inner root sheath ...28 

Hemoglobin .52-96 

oxy— .52 

reduced . 52 

Hemorrhage .19-20-75-76 

arterial .75-76 

capillary . 75 

first aid in . 75-76 

venous . 75-76 

Huxley’s layer, of inner root sheath .28 

Hydrochloric acid . 85-95-97-99-101 

action on the skin of. 99 

occurence of . 99 

preparation of . 99 

properties of . 99 

Hydrogen ...4-83-85-86-89-90-91-93-95-97-98-99-100 

chemical properties of .90 

occurence of . 89 

physical properties of . 90 

preparation of .90 

test for .90 

uses of. 90 

Hydrogen chloride . 99 

Hydrogen dioxide, (see hydrogen peroxide) .6-20-69-93-94 

Hydrogen peroxide .6-20-69-93-94 

action of . 69 

as an antiseptic. 6 

as a styptic.;. 20 

characteristics of . 69 

chemical properties of . 94 

physical properties of . 94 

preparation of .69-94 

use in the beauty parlor of .69 

uses of . 69-94 

HydrOgyri chloridum corrosivum .6-10-12-17-18-68-77 

Hydrophobia . 14 

Hygiene, definition of . 16 

personal . 17 

Hygroscopic substance.92-93 

Hyponychium ...,..30-32 


I 

Ichthyol, as a dressing in burns . 73 

Immunity ...8-9 

acquired . 8 

active .......'. 8-9 

natural, or hereditary ... «... . 8 

passive .... ... 8-9 

Infection .......... . ... .7-10 

general ............ 7 

local . ,.......... 7 

requirements for ... ................ 7 

120 


































































Influenza . 

bacillus of.!!!.’!!!!!!!! 

Inner root sheath .. 

cuticle of . 

Henle’s layer of _ 

Huxley’s layer of . '/// 

Inoculation . 

Intima . 

of arteries . . . . . . . . . 

of veins . 

Involuntary muscle tissue_ 

description of . 

Iodine . 

action of . 

as an antiseptic . 

as a styptic . 

characteristics of .j ’ ‘. 

first aid in poisoning by. 

source of . 

tincture of . 

use in the beauty parlor of!!.! 

K 

Karyokinesis . 

Kindling temperature .. 


.8-12 

.12 

.27-28-35 

... ........28 

.28 

.28 

.8-9 

.62 

.52 

.52 

.41-42-43 

.42-43 

6-10-18-20-66-68-69-77-83 

.18-69 

.6-10-20-69 

.20 

.69 

.77 

.69 

.6-10-20-66-69 

.69 


22 

89 


L 

La Grippe (see influenza) . 

Lanolin . 

Law of conservation of matter...’*.’.’.'.*.*.**. 

Law of definite proportions . . 

Law of multiple proportions .!.!*.!.! 

Lemon juice, as an antidote . 

Leucocytes . 

description of .....!.!.....!.. .* 

Liniment, definition of. 

Linimentum, definition of. 

Liquor . 

aluminum acetatis ....’..*.’. . .’. .*. 

ammonii acetatis . 

definition of . 

ferri subsulphatis, as a styptic .!.. .*! .* 

formaldehydi ... 

phenolis . 

potasse . V.. 

Lockjaw (see tetanus) . 

Lotio, definition of . 

Lotion, definition of . .. 

Lunula . 

Lymph . 

vascular system, action of* massage on 

Lysol . . . 

as an antiseptic .. . . . . . 


M 

Magnesium hydroxide, as an antidote. 

Magnesium sulphate, as an antidote. 

Malaria . 

Massage . 

history of .... ‘ 

its action on the blood vascular system 
its action on the lymph vascular system 

its action on the muscular system. 

its action on the nerves . 

its action on the respiration. 

movements in . 

theory of . 


.8-12 

.66 

86-87-101 

.91 

.94 

.77 

....51-52 

.62 

.66 

.66 

.66 

.66 

.66 

.66 

.20 

..6-68-69 

.18 

.70 

.4-10 

.67 

.67 

....30-32 

.80 

.80 

.18 

.18 


.76 

.77 

.14 

78-79-80-81 

.78-79 

.80 

.80 

.80 

.80 

.80 

...79-80-81 
.79 


121 































































Materia medica, definition of .65 

Matrix, of nail .30-31-32 

Matter, chemical definition of .82 

states of . 82 

Measels .8-14 

Media .52 

of arteries .52 

of veins .52 

Medulla, of hair .26-27-28 

Medullated axone .39-40 

Membrana propria .24-31-34-36 

Mercuric chloride (see bichloride of mercury) ... .6-10-12-17-18-68-77 

Milk, as an antidote .77 

as a soothing - liquid .76-77 

Milk of magnesia, as an antidote.76 

Mineral acids .73-76-97-98-99 

action on the skin of ..98-99 

first aid in poisoning by .76 

Mistura, definition of .66 

Mitosis .22 

Mixture, definitions .66-83 

chemical .83 

pharmaceutical . 66 

Molecular weight . 84-85 

Molecules . 84 

Monochloracetic acid .97 

Monsell’s solution, as a styptic.20 

Mumps .14 

Muriatic acid .85-95-97-99-101 

Muscles, or muscle .27-29-41-42-46 to 51 inclusive—80 

action of massage on .80 

arrector pili . 27-29 

attollens aurem . 47 

attrahens aurem .47 

buccinator .47-50 

compressor narium minor .47-50 

compressor nasi.47-49 

corrugator supercillii . 47-48 

definition of .41 

depressor alae nasi .47-50 

depressor anguli oris.47-50 

depressor labii inferioris .47-50 

dilator naris anterior .47-49 

dilator naris posterior.47-49 

discs . * .42 

external pterygoid .49-50 

inferior oblique .49 

internal pterygoid .. 49-51 

levator anguli oris .47-50 

levator labii inferioris .47-60 

levator labii superioris .47-50 

levator labii superioris alaeque nasi.47-49 

levator palpebrae superioris.48-49 

masseter .47-51 

occipitofrontalis .46-47 

orbicularis oris ..47-50 

orbicularis palpebrarum .47-48 

pyramidalis nasi .47-49 

rectus externus .48-49 

rectus inferior ..48-49 

rectus internus .48-49 

rectus superior.48-49 

retrahens aurem .47-48 

risorius.47-50 

superior oblique .48-49 

temporal .47-51 

tensor tarsi . •••48 

zygomaticus major .47-50 

zygomaticus minor .47-50 


122 






































































Muscle fibre .41-42 

contractile fibrillae of voluntary.1141-42 

sarcolemma of voluntary. 41-42 

sarcoplasm of voluntary .41-42 

sarcous substance of voluntary . 41 

striations of voluntary .42 

Muscle tissue .41-42-43 

cardiac .41-43 

heart .41-43 

histology of .41-42-43 

involuntary .41-42-43 

nonstriated .41-421-43 

striated .41-42 

voluntary .41-42 

Mustard, as an emetic .76 

Myelin sheath .39-40 

Myocardium . 64 

N 

Nail .30-31-32 

bed .30-31 

body .30-31 

construction of .30 

development of .30 

eponychium of .30-32 

free edge of.30-31 

groove .30-31 

histology of .30-31-32 

hyponychium of .30-32 

lunula of .30-32 

matrix of .30-31-32 

root .30-31 

wall . 30-31 

zones of bed of .31 

Nascent oxygen .94 

Nerves, or nerve.37-38-39-40-62-63-64-80 

abducens .62-63 

action of massage on .80 

auditory .62-63 

construction of .37-38-39-40 

cranial .62-63-64 

facial.62-63 

glossopharyngeal .62-64 

histology of .37-38-39-40 

hypoglossal .62-64 

motor oculi .62-63 

olfactory .62 

optic .62 

pneumogastric . 62-64 

spinal accessory. 62-64 

trifacial .621-63 

trochlear .62-63 

vagus .64 

Nerve cells .37-38-39 

axone of .37-38-39 

bipolar .38 

chromophilic bodies of .37-38-39 

dendrites of .37-38 

multipolar .38 

neuroflbrils of.37-38-39 

perifibrillar substance of .37-38-39 

processes of.37-38-39 

unipolar .38 

Nerve fibres, or axones .37-38-39-40 

axilemma of .39-40 

axiscylinder of .39-40 

medullated .39-40 

myelin sheath, of medullated .39-40 

123 




































































neurolemma of . 

nodes of Ranvier, of medullated 

nonmedullated . 

Neurofibrils . 

Neurolemma . 

Neurone . 

Neutralization . 

chemical . 

Nitric acid . 

action on the skin of . 

preparation of .. 

properties of. 

uses of ... 

Nitrogen . 

in air . 

occurence of . 

preparation of . 

properties of . 

Nodes of Ranvier . 

Nonmedullated axone . 

Nonstriated muscle tissue . 

Nose bleed .... 

first aid in. a . 

Nucleoli .*. 

Nucleus . 

of cell . 


O 


.39-40 

.39-40 

.39-40 

..37-38-39 

.39-40 

.37-38-39-40 

.98 

... 98 

‘‘ 97-99-i00 

.99 

.100 

.100 

.100 

4-86-93-94-95-97-98-100 

.93 

.94 

.94-95 

.95 


...39-40 
...39-40 
41-42-43 

.76 

.76 

. 22 

. 1 

.22 


Oil of vitriol . 

Ointment, definition of . 

Olive oil, as a soothing liquid 

Organic acids . 

Osteomyelitis . 

Outer root sheath . 

Oxalic acid .. 

Oxidation, definition of . 

slow, definition of. 

Oxide, definition of . 

Oxygen . 

chemical properties of .. 

in air . 

nascent . 

occurence of . 

physical properties of ... 

preparation of . 

test for . 

uses of . 

Oxyhemoglobin . 


..94-95-97-98-99-100 

.67 

.76 

.97 

.10 

.27-28-35-36 

.97 

.89 

.89 

89 

4-83-8*4- 8*5*-8*6*-*88- 89-91 -93 to ’ id 

.88 

.93 

.94 

.88 

.88 

.88 

.89 

.88-89 

. 52 


P 


Papilla, hair .27 

of skin .36 

Papillary laver .23-24 

Paralysis, infantile .14 

Parasites . 5 

Peppermint water. .66 

Pericardial fluid .54 

Pericardium . 54 

Perifibrillar substance ..37-38-39 

Perineurium ...'....40 

Peroxide of hydrogen (see hydrogen peroxide).6-20-69-93-94 

Petrissage .79-81 

Pfeiffer’s bacillus (see influenza) . 12 

Pharmacognosy, definition of . 65 

Pharmacology, definition of . ....65 

Pharmacopeia, United States . 65-66 

Pharmacy, definition of .'....65 

Phenol (see carbolic acid) .6-10-11-18-70-77 


124 


































































Physical change . 

Picric acid, as a dressing in burns 

Pneumococcus . 

Pneumonia .’ 

Poisoning .[ 

first aid in . 77 

Pore, sweat. 

Potassii hydroxidum . 

Potassium hydroxide . 

action of . 

characteristics of .7.7 

source of .77 

use in the beauty parlor of 77 

uses of . 

Potassium nitrate. 

Powder, definition of . 

Precipitate . 

Precipitation . 

Protein . 

Protoplasm . 

ceii. 

Protozoa . 

diseases caused by . * ’ * 

reproduction of . 

Proximal zone, of nail bed. 

Ptomain poisoning . 

bacillus of . 

Ptomains . 

Pulmonary circulation . 

artery and veins . 

Pulvis, definition of . 

Putrefaction . 

R 

Racemose glands. 

Radicals .. 

ammonium .7.7., 

carbonate . 

hydroxyl .7 77 

nitrate . 

phosphate . 7 

sulphate . . 

Reduced hemoglobin . 

Reducing agent, definition of .... 7 

Reduction, definition of . 

Reproduction . 

bacterial .. 

by akinesis . 777.77 

by fission . 77777 

by karyokinesis ..7.7 7 7 

by mitosis .. 

of cell ... 

Respiration .. 

action of massage on .7.7.777 

artificial . 

Schafer method of artificial.’.'.*.'. 
Sylvester method of artificial .. 

Rete, of skin ... 

Reticular layer .77! 

Rhubarb and soda . 

Root, hair .77 

nail .. 


.82-83 

.73 

.11 

.8-11 

.76-77 

.76-77 

.23-36-36 

70-98-100-101 

70-98-100-101 

.70 

..70 

.70 

.70 

.101 

.98 

.67 

.92 

.92 

.94 

.1-22-94 

.22-94 

.1-14 

.14 

.14 

.31 

..13 

.13 

. 7 

.53-55-56 

.53-55-56 

.67 

. 5 


.33 

...85-97 

.85 

.85 

...85-97 

.85 

.85 

.85 

.52 

.89 

.89 

..2-3-22 

.2-3 

....3-22 

.3 

.22 

.22 

.22 

71-72-80 

.80 

.. .71-72 
...71-72 

.72 

...23-24 
...23-24 

.66 

.26 

...30-31 


125 































































s 

Saccular glands .,.33 

compound .33 

simple .33 

Saline solution, as a dressing in burns. •••£3 

Salts . 97 - 98 -l« 

common . *j3 

composition of . 

magnesium sulphate .jj 8 

potassium nitrate .38 

properties of .. • • • "8 

sodium chloride .66-73-76-77-86-98-99-100-101 

Sanitation, definition of .13 

Saprophytes . ° 

Sarcolemma .^1-42 

Sarcoplasm . 41-42 

Sarcous substance . ••• 41 

Scalds ....... .Jo"?? 

first aid in ... c ii 

Schafer method of artificial respiration. 71 "H 

Sebaceous glands .24-27-29-34-35-36 

description of . 3b 

development of .. 

duct of .35-36 

histology of .. 

sebum of.. 

Sebum ...A 

Septicemia . . 

Shaft, hair . 

Shock, electric ... 

first aid in . 

Silver nitrate . . 

first aid in poisining by........ • • • • • • ‘ 

qkin .6-18-21 to 25 incl.—27 to 31 me.—34-35-36-37 

basement membrane of .••• £ 

epidermis of ’ .’.23-24-25-27-30-35 

hair^foUicles 'if".'•' '• '• '•'.24-27i2^29-35;36 
histology of .21 to 25 inclusive 

layers of ... 

membrana propria of .z 4 - 5 i-d 4 -<>o 

nerve supply of .. 

sebaceous glands of .24-27-29-34-35-36 

sterilization of . b 90 ~oi 

subcutaneous tissue of . 

sudoriferous glands of .. 

sweat pores of .Zd-do-db 

vascular supply of. 

Small-pox ...,-- ■> • • • • • • • • • . co7c 

Sodii bicarbonas (see bicarbonate of soda). 

Sodium carbonate, in mineral acid burns .‘3 

as an emetic . ini 

preparation of . : .. 

solution, as a wet dressing in burns.^ 

Sodium hydroxide .85-98-100-101 

preparation of . 

properties of . 

uses of . 

Sodium sulphate, as an antidote . 7 1 

Solute, definition of . 


126 




































































Solutions, or solution . 

antiseptic, for sterilization . 

Burow’s .i. 

chemical definition of . 

concentrated . 

dilute . 

Monsel’s . 

pharmaceutical definition of . 

saturated . 

supersaturated . 

Solvent, definition of . 

Spirilla . 

Spirochetae . 

Spores . 

bearers of . 

destruction of . 

Staphylococci . 

appearance of . 

diseases caused by . 

varieties of . 

Starch, as an antidote . 

Sterilization . 

antiseptic solutions for . 

by boiling water . 

by cabinet sterilizer . 

definition of . 

of hands . 

of instruments and implements. 

of skin . 

of towels . 

Stratum corneum . 

Stratum granulosum . 

Stratum lucidum . 

Stratum mucosum . 

Streptococci . , . 

appearance of . 

diseases caused by . 

Striated muscle tissue . 

Stroma . 

Styptics . 

solutions as . 

Subcutaneous tissue . 

Substance . 

chemical definition of . 

deliquescent .. 

efflorescent . 

hygroscopic . 

Sudoriferous glands . 

description of .. 

development of . 

duct of . 

fundus of . 

histology of . 

Sulphuric acid . 

action on the skin of . 

preparation of . 

properties of . 

uses of . 

Sweat pore. 

Swedish movement in massage. 

Swooning . 

first aid in .... 

Sylvester method of artificial respiration 

Symbols, chemical . 

Synthesis •... 

Systemic circulation . 


.18-66-91-92 

.18 

..66 

.91-92 

.92 

.92 

...20 

.66 

.92 

.92 

.92 

.1-2 

. 1 

.4-5-7 

. 5 

. 7 

.10 

.10 

.10 

.10 

..77 

5-6-16-17-18-19-67-68-69-70 

.18 

.18 

.18-19-69 

.16 

. 17-67-68 

.6-18-19-67-70 

.6-18-67 

.19-69 

. 23-24-25 

.23-24 

.23-24-25 

.23-24 

. 9 

. 9 

. 9 

.41-42 

.52 

.19-20 

.20 

.23-24 

.82-92-93 

.82 

.93 

.93 

Q9_qq 

!!!!.*!.’!!.!!. 23-24-34-35-36 

.34 

.34 

.34-35 

.34-35 

.33-34-35-36 

.94-95-97-98-99-100 

.98 

.99 

.100 

.100 

.23-35-36 

.79 

.74 

.74 

.72 

.85 

.83 

.56 


127 




































































T 


Tapotement . 

Temperature, kindling- . 

optimum .. 

Tetanus . 

antitoxin . 

bacillus of . 

Theories of hair growth. 

Thermometer . 

Centigrade . 

Fahrenheit . 

Tinctura, definition of . 

Tincture, definition of . 

of green soap . 

of iodine (see iodine) . 

Tissue, cardiac muscle . 

involuntary muscle. 

nonstriated muscle. 

striated muscle . 

voluntary muscle . 

Tourniquet, for use in hemorrhage 

Toxins . 

endo . 

exo . 

Trichloracetic acid . 

Tuberculosis . 

bacillus of. 

Tubular glands ... 

compound . 

simple . 

Tunica, adventitia . 

intima .. 

media . 

Typhoid fever .. 

bacillus of.. 

carriers of the germs of.. 

Typhus . 


..79-81 

.89 

. 4 

..4-10 

.11 

.10 

.29 

.91 

_._91 

.91 

.66 

.66 

.17 

6-10-20-66-69 

.41-43 

.41-42-43 

.41-42-43 

.41-42 

.41-42 

.75-76 

.3-4-7 

.3-7 

.4-7 

..97 

.8-11 

.. 11 

.33 

.33 

.33 

.52 

.52 

.52 

...8-12 

.12 

.12 

.14 


U 

Unguentum, definition of .67 

V 

Vaccines .8-10-12 

Valence, chemical . 85 

Vascular layer, of connective tissue sheath..*...29 

Vaseline .... 66 

Veins, or vein.51 to 56 inch—59 to 62 i'ncl. 

angular .60 

anterior jugular .60-62 

common facial .61 

external jugular ..’.. *60-6i-62 

facial . 60-61 

frontal .60 

inferior vena cava . ....52-63-55 

innominate .61-62 

internal jugular .60-61 

internal maxillary . 60 

left innominate ..’. 61 

occipital .. ” '. 60-61 

posterior auricular .!! 60-61 

posterior external jugular ..60-62 

posterior vertebral .61 

right innominate . !.!61 

subclavian .! .*.! 61 

superficial temporal.60 

superior vena cava.52-53-55-59-61 

supraorbital. .60 

temporomaxillary .60-61 

vertebral . 60-62 


128 


































































Vena cava, inferior. K 9 kq kk 

superior . !!!!!!! ”!: isalBa-illii:®! 

Ventricles, of the heart .63-54-55-56 

Vibration, in massage .79-81 

Vibrator, electric. 79 

Vinegar, in burns by alkalies .73-76-77 

in nose bleed . 7 g 

use as an antidote ... . '. '. ’. '.77 

Vitreous membrane, of connective tissue sheath .29-36 

Voluntary muscle tissue .41-42 

contractile fibrillae of. 41-42 

description of . !!!!!!!!! . .41-42 

histology of. I!!!!*.!*.!!!!!!! 41-42 

sarcolemma of .’ ^ * 41-42 

sarcoplasm of .’’’ [ 41-42 

sarcous substance of . !!!!...41 

striations of. !.!!!!.!42 


W 

Wall, nail . 

Water . 

boiling of. 

boiling point of . 

chemical properties of . 

chlorine . 

composition of . 

distillation of . 

electrolysis of . 

filtration of . 

freezing point of. 

occurence of .. 

of crystallization . 

peppermint . 

pharmaceutical definition of . 

physical properties of .. 

purification of.. 

uses of.. 

Wood alcohol .. 

first aid in poisoning by .. 


.30-31 

66-84-85-86-90-91-94-100 

.91 

.91 

.91 

.66 

.90 

.91 

. 88-90 

.91 

.91 

.90 

.92-93 

.66 

.66 

.91 

.90-91 

.91 

.77 

.77 


Z 


Zinci oxidum (see zinc oxide).70 

Zinc oxide .70 

characteristics of.70 

source of.70 

use in the beauty parlor of.70 

Zones, of nail bed .31 

central .31 

distal .31 

proximal .31 


129 























































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